Open Innovation and the Emergence of a New Type of University–Industry Collaboration in Japan

From the mid-1990s to the mid-2000s, major institutional reform was undertaken in Japan to promote university–industry collaboration. The term “university–industry collaboration” appeared frequently in the media and became a fad. However, this did not last long, and it peaked in 2003. University–industry collaboration entered the spotlight again after 2010, when “open innovation” (Chesbrough, 2003) became popular in Japan. At that time, a new type of university–industry collaboration emerged. University–industry collaboration in Japan has traditionally taken the form of “small-scale, short-term, individual” contracts. In contrast, this new type of collaboration features “large-scale, long-term, comprehensive” contracts.


Introduction
The use of external resources is critical to corporate research and development and innovation (Chesbrough, Vanhaverbeke, & West, 2006;Vega-jurado, Gutiérrez-Gracia, & Fernández-de-Lucio, 2009). There are various ways in which firms can acquire external resources, and university-industry collaboration is one of the main means (Adams, Chiang, & Starkey, 2001;D'Este & Patel, 2007;Fontana, Geuna, & Matt, 2006;Lee, 2000;Owen-Smith, Riccaboni, Pammolli, & Powell, 2002;Perkmann & Walsh, 2006). Japanese firms have long been collaborating with universities in various fields, including research and education. However, it was not until the mid-1990s that university-industry collaboration became a topic of public interest, with frequent mentions in the media. As "open innovation" (Chesbrough, 2003) has become popular in the 2010s, a new type of university-industry collaboration that differs from the traditional collaboration has emerged and is gathering attention.
This paper summarizes the history of university-industry collaboration in Japan from the mid-1990s to the present and identifies the characteristics of the new type of university-industry collaboration that appeared in the 2010s.

The First Boom: Reform of the Legal System as a Trigger
University-industry collaboration in Japan has a history of more than 100 years (Sawada, 1990;Tamai & Miyata, 2007). Corporations and universities have had close relationships with one another in various forms, both formal and informal (Baba & Goto, 2007;Branscomb, Kodama, & Florida, 1999). However, it was in the early 2000s that the term "university-industry collaboration" became a buzzword in industry, academia, and government consequent to the Science and Technology Basic Plan formulated in July 1996. 1 At the time, Japan was in an economic slump, and there were growing expectations that technological innovation would revitalize the economy and create economic growth (Baba & Goto, 2007;Harayama, 2003). To accomplish this on the basis of the Science and Technology The Science and Technology Basic Law enacted the prior year. 2 Takahashi and Nakano (2003) discuss technology transfer in Japan. universities; the loosening of restrictions on university teachers working in private enterprise; and the incorporation of national universities (Table 1). University-industry collaboration became a fad that was frequently discussed in newspapers, magazines, and other media.
These institutional reforms greatly promoted university-industry collaboration in Japan. According to a survey by the National Institute of Science and Technology Policy (NISTEP), the number of collaborative studies between national universities and private

Characteristic of the New Type of University-Industry Collaboration
What kind of university-industry collaboration constitutes the second boom of recent years? As we noted in the previous section, the number of cases of university-industry collaboration and the money in Japan tended to be in the form of "small-scale, short-term, and individual" contracts. In contrast, the new type of universityindustry collaboration features "large-scale, long-term, and comprehensive" contracts (Table 2).

Collaboration between Takeda Pharmaceutical Company and Kyoto
University (contracted in April 2015) and that between Chugai Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. and Osaka University (contracted in May 2016) are the two cases in the pharmaceutical industry that are most frequently highlighted by the media as the new type of universityindustry collaboration. 5 These joint research contracts were of the  (Chugai, 2017;Takeda, 2015). According to data from the Ministry of

Conclusion
This paper examined university-industry collaboration in Japan and presented the following two points.
(1) Japan has had two boom periods for university-industry collaboration since the 1990s. The first boom occurred in the early 2000s as a result of the legal system reforms of the late 1990s, and the second boom occurred in the 2010s in conjunction with the spread of "open innovation." (2) The "new type" of university-industry collaboration that appeared in the second boom was "large-scale, long-term, and comprehensive." The "new type" of university-industry collaboration is considered to be effective for industries such as pharmaceuticals, where there is a high degree of uncertainty in research and development, and where product development takes a long time. 7 In such industries, this new type of university-industry collaboration is expected to produce better outcomes than conventional university-industry collaboration. 8 However, this new type of university-industry collaboration has only just begun, and at this point we do not know whether it is really effective or not. This will require further study.