This study examined the relationship between a narrative character's goal information and text comprehension among EFL readers, with a particular focus on goal explicitness. A total of 70 Japanese university students read eight short narratives in which characters' goals were described either explicitly or implicitly; participants then completed immediate and one-week-delayed recall tasks. The participants were provided with the following two types of retrieval cues: sentences describing characters' goals (goal cues) or sentences stating a story background (neutral cues). The results demonstrated that participants' immediate recall performance did not significantly differ regardless of goal explicitness and cue type, indicating that EFL readers make inferences about a character's goal when it is not explicitly mentioned in the next. On the other hand, delayed recall performance was poorer when participants recalled goal-implicit passages with neutral cues, and this poor performance was mainly attributed to diminished recall of characters' goal-related action statements. This finding suggests that text representations based on inferred goals are less durable and difficult to reconstruct, unless these inferences are reactivated by retrieval cues.

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This study reports the results of the questionnaire survey motivated by the scarcity of published research on the current elementary school (ES) English teaching practice and teacher beliefs in terms of letter and early literacy instruction. The respondents were 311 ES teachers and 332 junior high school (JHS) teachers. It was found that the ES teachers tended to use activities they consider important more often in their classes, and that their determination of the importance was affected by the description of the Course of Study. Moreover, the ES and JHS teachers' attitude toward letter and early literacy introduction into FLA was still generally divided. However, more teachers expressed positive opinions and their reasoning was based on their own teaching experience and knowledge about literacy development. In contrast, the reasons described by the teachers with negative attitude were mostly on the basis of their personal feelings or opinions. Considering that teachers' beliefs and content knowledge affect their classroom practive, it is important to share information between ES and JHS English education systems as well as to provide teachers with knowledge about English literacy development and their roles in it.

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This study reviewed three representative aspects (themes, methods, and outcomes) of the published articles in ARELE, volumes 1 to 24. The review of 450 ARELE articles revealed the following results: (a) the 24 ARELE volumes could be divided into two periods (the first 12 and the second 12); (b) articles in each period have characteristic words to represent the themes peculiar to the period; (c) research themes have shifted from teaching to learning, with reading, vocabulary, assessment/testing, and motivation coming to the forefront; (d) articles are predominantly empirical studies, targeting learners at secondary and tertiary levels, and hypothesis generating, with a quantitative approach, while intervention studies are not common; (e) medium strength of effect size was obtained with a meta-analytical approach; (f) the effect size decreases toward more recent volumes, which may be a sign of theoretical refinement; (g) the statistical power of most studies is lower than it should be. A number of suggestions are offered for improving the quality of future research practice.

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The effects of direct and indirect feedback on second language (L2) writing have especially received attention from researchers in the field of second language acquisition (SLA). With both direct and indirect feedback on all errors made by students beign unmistakably a large burden on teachers' time and energy, there is a pedagogical importance of investigating the effect of grammar explanation as opposed to providing such feedback. For this reason, the current research aims to look at the effect grammar explanation has on students' accuracy in English composition writing. Using a pretest-treatment-posttest research design with 111 Japanese university students of English as a foreign language (EFL), we compared effectiveness of direct feedback and grammar explanation on explicit understanding of past hypothetical conditionals in English. Results show (a) improvement was seen from the pretest to the posttest, regardless of the group participants belonged to, and (b) there were no salient differences in how much each group improved. These results are discussed with reference to theories and empirical evidence in SLA. Limitations, future directions, and some pedagogical implications are also discussed.

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This study identifies (1) what strategies L2 learners use to select high frequency English binomials over their less frequent reversed forms, (2) which strategies are beneficial and which are not, and (3) whether the strategies based on the "Me First" principle (Cooper & Ross, 1975) are beneficial regardless of the word order of Japanese binomals. The results of a questionnaire survey of 124 Japanese learners of English of intermediate proficiency showed that the learners used diverse strategies based on not only linguistic cues such as semantic and phonological knowledge, but also world knowledge (e.g., physical positions). However, only a limited set of strategies had a positive rather than negative impact on the selection of English binomials. Among these strategies, those based on the "Me First" principle were the most useful regardless of the word order of Japanese binomials. The possible implications of these findings on the development of teaching strategies for binomials are discussed.

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This study examined an Aptitude Treatment Interaction (ATI) between three methods of intentional vocabulary learning and learners' lexical proficiency. Specifically, it was hypothesized that contextualized learning is more suitable for intermediate learners than for other learner groups. On the basis of past studies, including three prior studies of the present author's (Hasegawa, 2012a, 2013a, 2013b), a new experiment was conducted to compare the following three conditions for translation-assisted vocabulary learning: (a) without context (Decontextualized), (b) with glossed sentences conveying a more concrete and comprehensive situation (Contextualized+IMG), and (c) with glossed sentences conveying very abstract information (Contextualized-IMG). A total of 84 undergraduates in Japan were divided into three proficiency groups and asked to learn a list of low-frequency words in one of the learning conditions (randomly allotted). Test results showed an interactoin between learning condition and proficiency group, suggesting that high-intermediate learners in particular are best served by learning vocabulary in an appropriate context (Contextualized+IMG). It should be useful for teachers and researchers to know that learners at different proficiency levels have different extents of sensitivity to context.

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Focusing on the differences between film- and textbook-based dictation practices, this investigation examined the influences of film on the listening abilities of EFL learners. During the 10-week study, participants in the film-based group practiced dictation with film-based materials and those in the textbook-based group practiced dictation with textbook-based materials. Although the listening comprehension ability measured by the textbook-based test showed marginal improvement, the results showed that the students in both groups improved their listening comprehension skills in the film-based test. Their aural perception abilities, as measured by the film- and textbook-based dictation tests, did not show improvement. However, the results of the questionnaire revealed that the students in both groups felt that their listening abilities improved, with the students in the film-based group expressing the feeling that there was more improvement that the expressed by their counterparts in the textbook-based group. The study found that a fast speech rate was the factor that caused the students to feel the most difficulty in understanding the film; in comparison, the textbook-based group paid more attention to the detailes of the text.

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The current study investigated the effects of reading goals and learners' L2 reading proficiency on theme and text comprehension in expository reading. A total of 68 Japanese university students participated in this study and were randomly divided into two reading conditions according to instructed reading goals: (a) thinking about a writer's messages conveyed through the overall text (theme condition) and (b) understanding text content (control condition). After reading two expository texts, participants in both conditions completed a theme comprehension task and a written recall task. Results of both quantitative and qualitative analyses did not reveal any effects of reading goals on theme and text comprehension; higher proficiency readers performed better than lower proficiency readers in both tasks regardless of their reading goals. Moreover, participants who were unable to comprehend the theme tended to construct narrow themes that corresponded to the main idea of each paragraph rather than the message of the overall text. These results suggest that Japanese EFL learners have difficulty integrating information that is globally distributed in the text, which leads to poor theme comprehension in expository reading.

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Although the word "comunication" is prevalent in the Course of Study for secondary school English in Japan, few novice teachers have an idea of how communicative language teaching (CLT) can be practiced in their contexts. CLT is not a concrete teaching method, but rather an approach which consists of broad principles about language teaching and learning. How it is practiced depends on the context where it is employed. This paper will present critical incidents occurring when a novice teacher conducts CLT to reveal what the princples of CLT look like in practice and issues that novice teachers might encounter when conducting CLT. Critical incidents are unanticipated events which occur during a lesson that generate insights about teaching and learning. The critical incidents were told by a second year junior high school English teacher.

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The present study was undertaken to revise the existent Foreign Language Listening Anxiety Scale (Kim, 2000) which is unable to identify sources of learners' anxiety. Participants (N=1,435) were asked to complete a 35-item questionnaire measured on a five-point Likert scale. Survey results were analyzed using exploratory factor analyses and confirmatory factor analyses, yielding six factors of three items each: (A1) real-life listening, (A2) listening in the classroom, (B1) listeners' lack of knowledge, (B2) difficulties of the material, (C1) listeners' bottom-up processing, and (C2) listeners' metacognitive activities. A closer examination of model fit and comparisons with previous studies revealed that the extracted models were sufficiently valid to be accepted. This revised version of the listening anxiety scale enables us not only to measure learners' anxiety levels but also to identify its sources.

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Studies have shown that L2 learners make predictions about what might be written in the subsequent context (i.e., activate preditive inferences) during reading. However, learners do not always activate appropriate predictive inferences that are consistent with the subsequent context. Thus, the present study was conducted to examine how EFL readers deal with initially activated inferences when they are disconfirmed by the subsequent context, taking into consideration the methodological issues of previous studies. In the experiment, 43 Japanese university students read several short narratives designed to elicit an inference about the predicted event or to disconfirm the activated inference. Immediately after reading each passage, participants performed the meaningfulness judgment task (MJT) to a target sentence describing the predicted event. They also engaged in the sentence recognition task (SRT) to target sentences after reading all the passages. The response times of the MJT demonstrated that the activation of predictive inferences was not suppressed immediately after reading the context disconfirming the inferences. In contrast, the results of the SRT revealed that readers partially revised the disconfirmed inferences in their text memory. These results suggested that EFL teachers should pay attention to not only students' predictions in text reading, but also the suppression and revision of their predictions.

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This study investigated the relationship between two dimensions of vocabulary knowledge, namely vocabulary size and automaticity with a newly developed test that measures vocabulary size and lexical access tme in a single administration. The test was administered to two proficiency-based groups of Japanese learners of English majoring in foreign languages (N=88). The results of the test showed that the overall means of both vocabulary size and lexical access time strongly correlated with frequency levels of the words used in the test. However, no correlation was found between vocaburaly size and lexical access time when participants' individual data were analyzed. Furthermore, there was a tendency for participants with higher proficiency in English to score higher in terms of vocabulary size, whereas such a tendency was not observed for lexical access time data, which was contradictory to the findings of earlier studies. The possible reasons for the inconsistency are discussed in the target words.

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Although much attention has been paid to the concept of the ideal L2 self, there is still a lack of discussion on how language pedagogy helps learners develop it. The present study investigated how the L2 self of Japanese EFL learners can be changed through motivational interventions in university English classrooms. Focusing on the relationship between the L2 self and intrinsic/extrinsic motivation, interventions were designed that incorporated group work and informative feedback each of which was considered to encourage learners' self-determination (intrinsic motivation) and internalization (extrinsic motivation). Interventions were administered to 10 classes of a reading and presentation course. Five-point Likert scale Questionnaires were completed by learners in the first and last lessons to measure ideal and ought-to L2 selves, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, as well as three psychological needs (autonomy, competence, and relatedness). The result showed that not all changes were statistically significant, and the effect of the intervention on these learners' L2 selves and motivational variables varied across the classes. However, comparisons of effect sizes demonstrated that fostering intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation in English classrooms is one possible way to nurture Japanese EFL learners' L2 selves. It was suggested that the perception that learners study English because it's interesting and valuable is an important source of the ideal L2 self.

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The current study investigated phrase-level (chunk) processing fluency, using accelerated chunk reading task which manipulates the presentation time of chunks. Another purpose of this study was to examine whether the accelerated chunk reading promotes learners' reading comprehension and fluency. There are plenty of reports in literature on speed of word, sentence, and passage-level processing, but none on fluency of chunk-level processing in context. This study involved 43 Japanese EFL learners reading passages in three different speed conditions: fast, normal, and slow paces; and recalling these contents. Fast-paced condition in the reading task was assumed as a fluent reading, thus learners who comprehend text well in this condition are supposed to process chunks flunetly. A hypothesis represented that chunk-processing fluency rates to reading proficiency. Findings support this hypothesis: There were differences of chunk-processing fluency between proficiency levels in the accelerated reading. Results does not reveal a significant improvement by accelerated chunk reading as expected from previous studies, but the reading efficiency, one of indices of reading fluency, in fast reading condition was superior to the other conditions in both proficiency levels (upper and lower). These results suggest that this reading method is effective for EFL reading fluency without any special instruction in chunking.

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To coherently comprehend a narrative, readers need to infer implicit relationships between a goal (e.g., a character's aim during the narrative) and other information (e.g., actions and outcomes). Previous studies have revealed that readers generate on-line goal inferences, which are related to connecting a goal with other information during reading. This process contributes to the coherent comprehension of a narrative. However, few studies have investigated EFL readers' on-line goal inference generation and related cognitive factors in EFL reading. Thus, the present study examined whether or not EFL readers make the inference and how working memory capacity (WMC) affects these inferences. A group of 42 Japanese undergraduates read narratives and perfored recognition task, in which they recognized goal information as a target probe. Results of correct response rates and response times showed that EFL readers generated goal inferences despite cognitive constraints, and EFL readers who had greater WMC automatically generated on-line goal inferences. These results suggested that EFL learners' WMC should be considered when teachers select materials and instruct narrative reading.

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Although causal bridging inference generation has been evidenced to be instrumental in understanding and learning from expository texts, little research has been done with EFL readers. The present study therefore explored whether EFL readers generate causal bridging inferences from expository texts, focusing on two phases of inference processing: on-line and off-line. In the on-line phase, a total of 51 Japanese undergraduates read expository passages and answered verification questions. In the off-line phase, a sentence recognition task was used to evaluate off-line inference generation. The joint pattern of reading times for target sentences and response times for inference questions revealed that regardless of L2 reading proficiency, participants failed to make appropriate inferences during expository reading (i.e., on-line). However, the results of the sentence recognition task indicated that when required to engage in extended reflection after reading (i.e., on-line), participants did generate causal bridging inferences. In particular, high L2 proficiency readers showed more robust generation than low proficiency readers. Together, the on- and off-line findings emphasize the difficulty EFL learners have in making inferences from expository texts by themselves, and thereby highlight the importance of reflective tasks that elicit additional effort to make meaning from texts.

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The present qualitative study aims to construct a conceptual model of hub high school English teachers' perceptions of the changes and concerns brought about by a one-year project in which they participated. The participants are twenty-two senior high school English teachers who have shifted their teaching practices according to "can-do" statements (CDS) they set for themselves. Open-ended survey questions helped the teachers to express their perspectives on this reform project, and an analysis of the teachers' reflective responses was done in order to construct a conceptual model of teacher reflections on the project. Modified Grounded Theory Approach (M-GTA) developed by Kinoshita (2003, 2007) was employed, using the Structure-Construction Qualitative Research Method (SCQRM) (Saijo, 2007, 2008), as the theoretical framework for this study. The model generated suggests that the participants' first year of implementing CDS-based teaching practices have prompted shifts in (1) teacher beliefs and practices, (2) teacher collegiality, and (3) student outcomes. It also sheds light on factors that inhibit teacher change.

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This study investigated the effects of remedial feedback in paragraph writing utilizing a self-regulatory cycle to improve self-regulated learning ability and English writing abiliy of Japanese university students. Concerning self-regulated learning ability, which has four categories, there were significant differences in Self-Efficacy (t=4.16, p<.01), Use of Metacognitive Strategies (t=6.40, p<.01), and Anxiety (t=2.21, p<.05), while there was no statistically significant difference in Intrinsic Value. In view of the students' evaluation, Expression, Structure, Content, and Grammar and Vocabulary, there were statistically significant differences in all categories. Moreover, significant differences were found in the investigation of the number of words used, sentences used, and t-units. In addition, a lot of protocol data showed the effects of this study as well. From these analyses it could be said that students were able to acquire self-regulated learning ability and to improve their English writing ability through remedial feedback utilizing a self-regulatory cycle.

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Main idea comprehension is one of the most important aspects of text comprehension (Grabe & Stoller, 2011). In the model of text comprehension, readers construct local and global coherence in micro- and macro-processing (e.g., Kintsch & van Dijk, 1978). Although the model assumes that readers use summarization rules (i.e., macrorules) in main idea comprehension, this hypothesis has not been fully examined. Thus, the current study investigated whether EFL learners' ability to use macrorules affected their main idea comprehension. An experimental study was conducted with 72 Japanese senior high school students. A summary task and multiple choice questions were adopted to measure their macrorule use and main idea comprehension. Based on the result of the summary task, the participants were divided into those who were good and poor at macrorule use (i.e., skilled and less skilled groups, respectively). The correct answer rate for the multiple choice questions was significantly higher in the skilled group. According to answer patterns, the skilled group was better at understanding specific main ideas than the less skilled group, while the less skilled group was more likely to identify detailes as main ideas. These results suggest that EFL learners' macrorule use contributes to their main idea comprehension, and that less skilled readers may rely on microprocessing.

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Since the spring of 2011, all elementary schools in Japan have been required to teach a foreign language, basically English, to 5th and 6th graders once a week for 35 weeks. MEXT developed and distributed a set of teaching materials, "Hi, friends! 1" for 5th graders and "Hi, friends! 2" for 6th graders, and the materials have been used nationwide. In the second last lesson, Lesson 7, of "Hi, friends! 2", 6th graders are supposed to create and perform a play arranging the story of "Momotaro", a Japanese old tale, using the sentences and words they have learned in the class. Since Lesson 7 is the overall review unit of the two yeas of their learning, to examine the pupils' lines used in their plays will lead to asking the result of the two years' learning. The pupils made full use of the words and sentences they have learned to create and perform a play. The total of 65 to 96 English sentences with 44 to 60 different words were used in their plays, and most of the sentences consisted of one to four words. Their successful plays have shown the potential ability of elementary school pupils in English learning.

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According to the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, all high schools in Japan are expected to establish specific learning attainment targets in the form of 'CAN-DO lists.' Although a lot of studies have introduced the process of developing their own 'CAN-DO lists,' there is no research investigating how the 'CAN-DO lists' should be created in a small school. This study shows how the 'CAN-DO lists' were created and validated in Hokkaido Erimo high school, a small combined junior and senior high school. First, the attainment goal at the point of graduation from Erimo high school was set by the teachers in Erimo elementary, junior, and senior high schools. Second, using Eiken 'CAN-DO lists,' multiple-choice questionnaires were created and administered to the teachers and students. With reference to the results, fully validated 'CAN-DO lists' of Erimo high school could be developed. There are three more advantages in this study. First, thanks to the questionnaire, the 'CAN-DO lists' would contribute to the students' motivation to learn English. Second, through this study, a lot of teachers could communicate with each other beyond the difference of schools and subjects. Third, there is a positive backwash effect on creating the 'CAN-DO lists' in other schools and subjects. From these findings, a suggestion for future research of improving 'CAN-DO lists' is discussed.

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Eight fourth graders were taught English for a total of 13 hours over 4 successive days. Instruction focused on guiding the children to learn to correctly pronounce and write a range of materials that included common everyday words, songs, and rythmes. All through the activities, the children were encouraged to pay attention to the number of "chunks," or technically syllables, each word consisted of. This was done by inviting them to mimic the instructor when he, while pronouncing a word, bent his fingers, stamped his feet, or swayed his body, expressing its syllable nuclei. At the beginning of Day 1 and also near the end of Day 4, the same test was given in which students were presented with the recorded pronounciation of 9 words, without any orthographic information but with photographs that clearly conveyed their meanings, and were required to answer in a multiple-choice format how many "chunks" they felt constituted each word. The words tested were not among those practiced in the learning phase sandwiched between the two testing phases. Wilcoxon signed rank tests indicated that the percentage of words corectly syllable-counted were significantly higher in the post-test than in the pre-test; the effect size turned out to be large.

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