Don DeLillo's 2001 novel, The Body Artist, explores the question of time with a pragmatic view of the narrative act, which mutates the temporality that defines the identity of Lauren Hartke. Though critics focus on the theme of grief that, according to them, runs throughout the novel, the narrative in fact introduces another temporality that the mysterious man, Tuttle, inhabits. In bringing Lauren into encounter with this man, the novel problematizes Lauren's definition of the self, which is based on the linear temporality. Lauren's initial assumption of time privileges the "I" in the present that forms the inside realm; this scheme is shaken when she finds that Tuttle, with his helpless access to past-future events, points to the "outside" that inhabits the present. Instead of resorting to the inside/outside opposition, the narrative examines a place of "in-between" where the two realms interact with each other: the novel presents the body in the present as a membrane, rather than a stable ground of identity, which constantly touches on and mutates the outside. The body acts as a differentiator that converts outside events into different ones to form interiority. The past and the future are the potential for production of difference that the body in the present keeps expressing. By enacting and affirming this corporeal opening, Lauren overcomes the grief, and this process is inseparable from the narrative dynamic itself. Constituting a loop that revisits the past scenes to infuse the elements of the "outside" into them, the narrative itself practices the idea of the membrane through which a new beginning is made possible.

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This paper attempts to reconsider the aesthetic aspect of Charlotte Perkins's Gilman's "The Yellow Wallpaper." By aesthetic aspect I mean certain formal and rhetorical features that not only convey the narrative plot but present some significant values of their own. I submit that the feminist hermeneutic community, generated in process of the three decades of critical analyses of "The Yellow Wallpaper," tends to draw its boundary by excluding the stylistic analysis of the text. Style, understood as various modes of presenting written materials including punctuation, typography and arrangement, becomes the constitutive other in this hermeneutic community. I will first examine the curious relationship between the aesthetic elements of the text and their feminist reception, and then proceed to present my own reading of "The Yellow Wallpaper," focusing on the shifting nature of the narrative voice that can be intimately connected with the exacerbation of the heroine's nervous dementia. By so doing, my analysis of "The Yellow Wallpaper" will pay close attention to the particular process in which certain modes of expression may come to be repressed by the gendered conventions of narrative development. In my course of analysis, I intend to attribute various symptoms of hysteria to the stylistic idiosyncrasies of the story. This does not mean that I will diagnose the story's style as pathological, but rather I would like to consider how the hysteric symptoms can be turned into the aesthetics of a certain kind of literary form.

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Both the elaborate arrangement of texts and the fragmented state of them are characteristic of Doris Lessing's The Golden Notebook. Anna Wulf, the protagonist of the novel, produces four separate notebooks, which she tries to integrate into a golden notebook and into a new novel. Yet, at the same time, she refuses to paper over the conflicts in order to produce a superficial wholeness; accordingly, her attempt at integration is thwarted and her writings inevitably remain fragmented. Faced with this dilemma, she raises the fundamental questions about reading, writing, and language. This paper aims to elucidate the textual strategies of Lessing, who, as a compiler of Anna's writings, provides the reader with those fragmented texts and gives this unique aesthetic form to them. The form matters because it at once is given by the elaboration of texts and embodies the ideological formation, which underlies the difficulties that the protagonist undergoes. Through her literary praxis, Anna notes that language not merely reflects the world but also creates the object to write about, and that the subject, the object, and the world are interrelated to constitute the text. Elaboration concerns those entwined relations in the discursive process; therefore, the personal act of writing is linked with social relations and with the collective act of transforming the world. What Lessing attempts to do in the novel is to give the ideological "feel" of the time; this ideological "feel" corresponds to Jacques Ranciere's concept of the "partition of the perceptible" and Raymond Williams's methodological concept of the "structure of feeling." Both Ranciere's and Williams's conceptions are concerned with the effect of the interrelations in the textual process. Likewise, Lessing, in order to give the ideological "feel," elaborates the form, which acts out the ideological formation and embodies the effect of the interaction between the subjective and the collective.

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In 2002 and 2003 Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology introduced new guidelines for junior and senior high school teaching, respectively. The amount of time devoted to English writing activities decreased in line with an increased focus on training in aural/oral communication skills, with the result that many university newcomers are now perceived to have insufficiently developed writing skills. At the same time, society's need for people with high levels of proficiency in English writing has grown, so over the last four years, several top-level universities, recognizing the importance of teaching written English for Academic Purposes (EAP), have set up Writing Centers and inspired other universities to follow suit. It is widely recognized that the proficiency gap is widening between average university students and those who take advantage of these Centers. University lecturers of the English language need to explore activities that will inspire ordinary university students to write and acquire language skills. In this context, an appropriate non-EAP writing activity for university students may be writing about themselves. No student can claim to lack materials for writing on this topic, and it is commonly believed that students are already accustomed to writing about themselves in Japanese, and even in English, having done so at the primary and secondary school levels. In addition, increased opportunities to study abroad mean that many students need to write about themselves when preparing personal statements. To maximize the educational benefits of this kind of writing activity, combining it with reading activities is a sound idea. Reading passages from autobiographies, for example, can be expected to raise students' linguistic awareness by helping them to identify differences in presentation techniques, paragraph organization and stylistic features, ultimately facilitating their own attempts at writing about themselves. The validity of this expectation has been examined through a "Writing about Yourself" program given to 98 students at Nippon Medical School and 16 in the Faculty of Letters, Keio University. All the students were requested to read short passages from autobiographies by Charles Darwin and Ellen Glasgow, and from Charlotte Bronte's Jane Eyre. The three passages vary in linguistic level and present contrasting styles. After discussing in class various important elements embedded in the texts, the students were requested to write in their own time about any memories or experiences of their choosing and to submit their efforts in typewritten form. They were also asked to complete a questionnaire on their experience of writing about themselves and the benefits, if any, of reading the three passages prior to carrying out the writing activity. The questionnaire results showed that as many as 77 of the students had, in fact, not previously had the experience of writing about themselves, and 45 felt the topic was not an easy one to write on. This suggests that more preparation than one might expect may be necessary for this type of writing activity. As a whole, reading the different passages appeared to have been helpful, inspiring students to express themselves freely and offering them hints on structure and differences in linguistic level. However, the students who were less competent in expressing themselves both in Japanese and English could be assumed to find it more difficult to introduce the grammatical and stylistic elements they observed in the reading passages into their own writing. The results of this teaching project offer suggestions as to how a "Writing about Yourself" program might be introduced into university English classes to increase student exposure to writing and help them develop strategies for expressing themselves in both Japanese and English.

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Although medieval private letters shared characteristics of style, each writer also used his own style, which was influenced by the social relationships between the writer and the recipient of the letter. Alison Hanham suggests that William Cely wrote to Richard II and George "with great deference." In this historical sociolinguistic study, focusing on the uses of the auxiliaries "will," "shall," "should," and "would" in the first, second and third persons and their semantic relations with the verb following them, I have discussed how the writers of the Cely Letters used these social markers. After examining the uses and collocations of these auxiliaries, I conclude that "will," "shall," "should," and "would" express the writer's attitude toward the other member or members of the family with respect to its social hierarchical structure. I also conclude that whether the original modal meanings of the auxiliaries appeared depended on the nature of the verb (phrase) following the auxiliaries. If the volitional verb (phrase) followed, the auxiliaries expressed their original meaning of "wish" or "obligation". Furthermore, some writers tended to use "would" in the first person singular and to use "will" in the second person because the modal meaning of "would" was not as strong as that of "will." The complementary distribution of "would" and "will" between the first person and the second person is evidence that these auxiliaries were used as social markers to express the writer's hierarchical position in the family.

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In the poems of Anna Barbauld, which she mainly composed in her twenties, her private affection for others is fused with a reasoned writing style. The affection that Barbauld felt developed through her friendly associations with others-as exemplified in her "friendship poems," "To Mrs. P[riestley], with some Drawings of Birds and Insects" or "The Invitation: To Miss B*****"-is fused with the neoclassical rhetoric form of heroic couplets in the poem. It is also assumed that she deliberately used such antithetical rhetorical styles, in order to present the ideal female inner characteristic of sensibility and poetic vision of communion with God as evidenced in "Summer Evening's Meditation" or "Ode to Deity." Barbauld's social and religious background as well as her unique position as a female Dissenter yielded considerable influence on her writing technique. Being critical of the rational Unitarian culture which valued reason to humanize Jesus Christ, Barbauld claims that sensibilities, supported by reason, are enhanced in imagining God and virtue, which may provide an insight into the origins of the Romantic poetics of imagination. She was also in a peculiar position, living in the domain of the private sphere, which was different from the public sphere of the male Dissenters. Therefore, her status can be described as a "double dissent" (Ross 93). This paper argues that Barbauld tried to invent a style of poetry allowing the free expressions of sensibilities within the formalistic rhetorical style of reason.

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This paper is an attempt to locate the male disguises of Shakespearean heroines in the context of the contemporary controversy over theatre, especially paying attention to their contribution to the stabilisation of the social fabric represented in the play. Antitheatrical criticism began to appear just after the opening of public performances in the newly built Theatre in 1576. While the first phase of the criticism was directed against the lustful behaviours of spectators and social disorder caused by the performance, the second phase criticised the immorality of acting itself. The most important figure in this crucial phase is Stephen Gosson, whose Playes Confuted in Five Acts (1582) had a great influence over antitheatricalists with his criticism of actors' 'counterfeiting' based on the scriptural authority of ban on transvestism in Deuteronomy 22: 5. The argument not only allowed him to attack boy actors' female clothing but also gave him an occasion to criticise harshly transvestism, which was seen as a violation of the edicts against wearing clothing of the wrong rank. His own witness shows that the argument was the product of his anxiety over the social advancement of actors, whom he feared and called 'Gentlemen Actors'. Actors, who were increasingly achieving social advancement under the protection of nobles, presented a great threat to many Elizabethans. They were privileged to wear costumes of upper ranks irrespective of sumptuary law obsessively enforced by the government. Thus actors' costume symbolised their upward mobility and Gosson's criticism was the expression of the society's anxiety. The male disguises of Portia (The Merchant of Venice), Rosalind (As You Like It), and Viola (Twelfth Night) form each play's chief theatrical attraction. But these disguises also have an effective social function because they bring about socially desirable matches and solve the plays' socio-economic problems. Portia, by utilising a male disguise in order to reject Shylock's case and save Antonio's life, renders Bassanio's courtship morally intact, thus enabling her marriage when her father's will seemed almost to prevent it. Witty artifices by Rosalind in male disguise finally solve the problems in succession of both the families of Duke and de Boys. Considering that boy actors' transvestism was the chief target of the antitheatrical criticism of those days, Shakespeare's positive use of cross-dressing in these comedies can be interpreted as the dramatist's answer to the attack. Twelfth Night is especially relevant in this respect in that it treats two kinds of transvestism - one crossing over the boundary of gender and the other of rank - by the contrast of Viola and Malvolio. While the heroine's male disguise brings about two desirable marriages and her own happiness, the socially ambitious steward's fantastical costume symbolises his ambition, exposes him to mockery, and finally causes him to be expelled from the play's world. We can then conclude that Shakespeare countered anxiety-ridden criticism against transvestism by showing the beneficial aspects of transvestism in the heroines' successful use of male disguise, while warding off criticism against upward social mobility.

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It seems strange that Matthew Arnold, who could be regarded as a realistic relativist, devoted himself to the belief that 'culture' is an abstract and absolute idea, in his most famous work, Culture and Anarchy. In this paper, I will recount the how (not the why) of his thoughts by examining the transition of his use of critical terms such as 'culture' and 'state.' Through his early prose works, Arnold struggled to abandon the romantic sentiments that overwhelmed him as a young poet and confirm his own view of poetry by idealising the verbal reproduction of the 'actions' described in ancient Greek plays. In On Translating Homer, a creative activity based on 'models' was generalised as a form of recognition 'to see the object as in itself it really is', which he called 'criticism.' In 'Function of Criticism at the Present Time,' he defined 'criticism' as a mediating art to diffuse normative knowledge to a whole society; in his educational reports, he considered 'state' as an 'art' of creating or maintaining national unity. 'State' became a normative idea in Culture and Anarchy, where 'culture' was considered to function as a medium through which the English could attain the ideal. However, in his critical terminology, the word 'culture' has diverse meanings. In his early politico-historical essay, 'Democracy,' there is a strong indication of the general mode of the lives of the English aristocracy. Originally, it was a concrete noun that suggests a particular national life, though it gradually became an abstract concept that referred to general humanity. In 'Function of Criticism at the Present Time,' he stressed the social instrumentality of 'criticism' while restraining himself from pushing 'culture' to the forefront. Prior to Culture and Anarchy, he appeared to hesitate to use the word 'culture' extensively, especially in his literary criticism, since it is a term that implies nationality and is closely associated with romanticism, which he negated in his earlier writings. Thus, how did he manage to employ 'culture' as a normative concept in Culture and Anarchy? Paradoxically, he achieved this by defining it as an art. Based on the parallelism with the concept of the state, it follows the process by which 'state' changes from an instrumental framework to a normative idea. In this work, Arnold not only absolutised but also personalised the term 'culture', which appeared to be a medium or an image of God. Arnold claimed that the English adored 'culture' as it could function as a medium for their intellectual perfection. Absolute diction enabled him to use the word with a kind of transcendent significance. For this reason, we can consider the quasi-religious language of Culture and Anarchy as the discourse of idolatry.

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The "child" is a motif which Caryl Churchill has employed repeatedly in her plays. Regarding Churchill's strong focus on the child motif, Colin Chambers and Mike Prior have suggested that one could understand the use of the motif up to 1987 in the context of gender issues. This argument may be effective for understanding the child motif in Churchill's representative works written around 1980. However, this essay focuses on Churchill's earliest plays such as The Ants, Abortive and The Hospital at the Time of the Revolution, and argues that the representation of children in these plays cannot necessarily be reduced to a subsidiary of the theme of mother figures. This child motif, furthermore, offers a greater potential for the foregrounding of the distortions in our inner and outer worlds. First, through the examination of The Ants, the way in which the terror caused by a large-scale system of desertion (represented as "war" in this play) is conveyed through the child motif is made clear. Secondly, the way in which the existence (or non-existence) of an aborted baby is used to reveal a sense of loss in a seemingly affluent life is examined through Abortive. This is followed by a discussion of The Hospital, where, primarily through the representation of a schizophrenic teenage girl, the importance of the child motif in the foregrounding of the distorted power structure of the world is confirmed. (Here, the child motif mirrors the figure of the colonised, abused mentally and physically, which emphasises the viciousness of colonialism.) At the same time, the child motif in this play not only points to the distortion in the larger system of the world; the child is also depicted as the only subject who is able to recognise, and may even counter, the horrific nature of the system.

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In the present paper, I have advanced an analysis which allows us to account for why the trace of a clause, unlike a clause, can appear in the subject position of a nonfinite clause, in the complement position of a preposition, and between a verb and a PP complement, thereby accounting for the distributional differences between a clause and its trace. The suggested analysis can also account for the contrast in grammaticality between examples like (5a, c) and (5b, d), thereby accounting for the distributional differences between a nominal and its trace.

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