Recent decades have brought substantial expansion of private supplementary tutoring (widely known as shadow education). Initially with particular prominence in East Asia, it is now a global phenomenon across countries of all income groups. Social inequalities arise from the inability of low-income households to secure the quantities and qualities of tutoring available to middle- and high-income households. A few governments, concerned about social inequalities and other factors, have tried to suppress private tutoring. However, it is arguable that families have the right to invest in such tutoring. The expansion and implications of private tutoring need stronger consideration from this perspective, with awareness of complexities. To some extent developments are an unintended consequence of well-meaning efforts to promote social equality and human rights.

This paper provides a comprehensive historical analysis of Japan’s policy responses to juku (shadow education), a topic often addressed only in fragments in international debates. While strong regulatory measures in countries such as South Korea and China have been widely studied, Japan’s distinctive non-regulatory trajectory remains underexplored. Drawing on official documents and nationwide surveys from the 1970s to the 2010s, the study clarifies how responses developed and what implications they hold.

The historical overview shows a shift from strong criticism in the 1970s to “critical acceptance” in the 1980s and 1990s, and finally to broader acceptance in the 2010s, when juku were recognized as partners in education and innovation. Five interrelated characteristics emerge: (1) the constitutionally guaranteed “freedom of juku education,” (2) monitoring through surveys, (3) the uniquely Japanese approach of “non-binding requests,” (4) indirect reforms and improvements of public education, and (5) the persistent dilemma of criticism and acceptance.

The study contributes by refining Bray’s and Zhang’s frameworks―introducing “requesting” as a new policy approach and broadening “reforming mainstream schooling” into a wider concept of “reforming in public education.” These findings reposition Japan in comparative education debates and offer alternative insights for countries where regulation or prohibition is difficult to implement.

This paper explores the structure of supplementary education in East Asia by comparing China, South Korea, and Taiwan. In 2021, China introduced the Double Reduction policy to cut back on homework and private tutoring, aiming to shift learning back to schools and teachers. The study shows that this policy is not an isolated move but part of a longer history of educational reform. South Korea once imposed a total ban on private tutoring, later replacing it with stronger public education within schools. Taiwan developed a dual system: private anqin ban, which mix after-school care and tutoring, and publicly supported kehou ban, where teachers provide affordable after-school programs. These cases reveal a regional pattern in which governments and schools take on roles previously left to the private sector, especially in reducing inequality. The comparison highlights shared challenges and different strategies in balancing equity, parental demand, and teacher workload. This paper situates China’s Double Reduction within a broader East Asian framework, contributing to the understanding of how supplementary education systems evolve under diverse social and policy contexts.

In Japan, it is commonplace to assume that the family budget must allow for the costs of attending cram school. Many children study at cram schools, an “extraordinary learning space,” to acquire specialized subject-specific knowledge and skills for entrance exams to higher education. However, some children are unable to attend cram schools due to regional characteristics such as depopulation or poverty. To address this issue, an educational policy was introduced that uses public funds to provide access to cram schools. As a result, children’s learning opportunities have been expanded and guaranteed.

Noteworthy about this policy is that local governments, which manage and oversee school education, did not invest more public funds in school education than they had in the past, but instead used public funds to establish the extraordinary learning space known as a cram school. However, this policy created a sense of premium quality, i. e. rarity, precisely because of the “main education system” constituted by school education. Therefore, it is important to continue to improve school education and to implement policies that provide optimal learning services for children.

In recent years, cooperation between school education and shadow education has expanded, yet shadow education is still often framed negatively as exam-oriented cramming. Within this sector, however, NPO-led learning support is increasingly recognized as welfare-oriented care, addressing truancy, educational disparities, and child poverty, and contributing to the guarantee of children’s “right to education.” Institutional frameworks, such as the Act on Ensuring Diverse Educational Opportunities and the Act on Countermeasures Against Child Poverty, have strengthened social recognition of these initiatives. Nevertheless, this paper highlights a structural contradiction: while NPOs receive positive evaluation, they face weakening roles under competitive government outsourcing. Corporations, with superior resources and scale, dominate commissions, creating stratification and rivalry instead of cooperation. As a result, NPOs are either drawn into exhausting competition or forced to withdraw, threatening the welfare-oriented role of shadow education as a safe space for children. Although corporate participation offers benefits, such as exam-focused specialization, it risks narrowing diverse educational opportunities. To sustain both academic and welfare-oriented support, local governments must ensure balanced contractor selection and foster coexistence of varied approaches. Ultimately, this paper calls for safeguarding diversity and the public nature of shadow education in order to protect children’s opportunities and counter the reproduction of inequality.

This study reassesses the role and value of private supplementary, or “shadow” education from a social justice perspective. It shifts the perception of shadow education from a threat to a potential means of restoring equality of opportunity. The study clarifies shadow education’s limited impact and the new challenges it faces amid public education restructuring. First, it calls for a reevaluation of the notion that shadow education solely undermines equal opportunity. Since public education often fails to equitably distribute education as a “positional good,” the study argues for the potential of private tutoring to support public schools, especially for low-achieving students. Second, it acknowledges the practical challenges of public funding. An analysis of the U.S. case reveals that market-based collaborations often result in “neoliberal” partnerships that reduce education to narrow academic productivity. Third, the study critiques the assignment of public missions to private education in the U.K. and Germany, noting that state intervention can undermine private autonomy. Finally, the study proposes a novel framework that considers the unique roles of both spheres rather than offering simple quantitative compensation. The study redefines private education as a space for fostering “relational goods” such as civic virtue to complement the democratic mission of public education.

This paper examines the significance of supplementary education for second-generation Brazilians in Japan, grounded in the lived experiences of the individuals concerned. In particular, an analysis of the processes through which they cultivate their own resources to produce educational practices responsive to their specific needs reveals the following insights. First, supplementary education encompasses both a complementary and a creative dimension. While it undoubtedly functions to support learning that formal schooling cannot fully accommodate, the programs undertaken by the participants extended beyond mere supplementation. They also embodied a creative aspect, through which the participants, informed by a critical perspective on Japanese public education, reconfigured schooling from their own standpoint. Second, given the inherently mediatory character of the supplementary education they provide, participants tend to orient their engagement with public education beyond the confines of their ethnic backgrounds. Third, the participants conceptualized the supplementary education in which they engage as a form of social business designed to bridge ethnic resources and the public education system. This represents a significant effort, undertaken from their own perspective, to advance the social integration of children of immigrants.

Shadow education (SE) is believed to widen social inequality because more affluent families can afford more SE and reap significant benefits for the educational attainment of their children. However, past studies indicate significant cross-national differences in the outcomes of SE for academic performance and school transition. The present article comparatively examines the outcomes of SE in Germany and Japan addressing the following question: How, and if so, why do the outcomes of SE for educational success differ in Germany and Japan? Using the latest iterations of two rich national longitudinal studies, the Germany National Education Panel Study (NEPS) and the Japan Education Longitudinal Study (JELS), structural equation models show the following main findings: (1) In Germany, SE is used largely independent of SES, but leads to no significant improvement in academic achievement level or better chances of allocation to high schools. (2) In contrast, SE provides students in Japan with significant advantages for high school allocation at the cost of higher social selectivity in its use. Our results are discussed regarding the potential contribution of SE to educational success and social inequality within given country-specific constraints. Specifically, our findings have implications for theory building, practice, and policies (e.g., support measures to tackle education inequality).

This study investigates how shadow education shapes academic disparities across subjects in Japan. While previous studies on educational inequality have mainly focused on Japanese and mathematics, recent nationwide data reveals that the socio-economic status (SES) achievement gap is most pronounced in English. This study hypothesizes that differential access to shadow education is a factor explaining why the gap varies by subject. Using data from the 2021 Parent Survey and Long-Term Trend Survey, supplementary components of the National Assessment of Academic Ability (NAAA), the survey estimates five plausible values and uses regression to examine how participation in cram schools (juku) and English conversation schools (eikaiwa gakko) relates to student achievement. The results demonstrate that the extent to which shadow education accounts for the relationship between SES and achievement varies by subject. Controlling for shadow education variables reduces the SES coefficient for English achievement by approximately 15%, a reduction larger than those for mathematics (7%) and Japanese (3%). This finding indicates that unequal access to shadow education is one reason why the SES achievement gap is particularly large in English. This study highlights the importance of analyzing differences among subjects and suggests that previous research may have underestimated the extent of educational inequality.

This study analyzes the spatial distribution of juku (cram schools) in Hokkaido, Japan, focusing on disparities in geographical accessibility. While household capital has been widely studied as a determinant of juku attendance, geographical factors have received less empirical attention. Using an operational definition of juku and methods from geography, including buffer analysis around junior high schools, the study clarifies both the quantitative abundance and qualitative variety of juku across urban classifications.

Findings indicate oversupply in core and large cities and undersupply in rural municipalities. However, disparities in geographical accessibility are not simply urban-rural: even in large cities, neighborhoods differ markedly, with some offering more than 40 juku within walking distance and others none. Rural areas also show service homogenization, dominated by self-directed learning formats and national chains, limiting qualitative variety.

Policy implications are twofold. In rural municipalities, publicly operated juku and subsidies for locally rooted providers are essential to expand group and individualized instruction, supplemented by online and satellite learning. In urban centers, voucher programs should be complemented with transportation and online access support to address neighborhood-level disparities. Overall, accessibility to juku constitutes a broader challenge for local and prefectural governments, not only for rural communities.

This study examines how attending cram schools (juku) can affect the high school transition in Japan, with a particular focus on the differences between the effects of cram schools offering group instruction (shūdan-shidō juku) and those offering individual instruction (kobetsu-shidō juku) and their impacts on high school selectivity levels. Previous studies primarily focused on the overall effect of cram school attendance; however, they paid little attention to differences by cram-school type. Using nationally representative panel data from the Japanese Longitudinal Study of Children and Parents (2015-2021), this study applies inverse probability weighting based on propensity scores to estimate the average treatment effects of cram school attendance while controlling for family background and prior academic achievement. The results demonstrate that attending both group-instruction and individual-instruction cram schools increases the likelihood of progressing to middle- or higher-ranked high schools, although the effects of individual instruction are smaller. In contrast, while group-instruction cram school attendance has a significant positive effect on progression to highly selective high schools, individual-instruction cram school attendance has no significant effect. Thus, this study highlights the importance of taking into account the differences between cram school types when examining their effects on educational outcomes.

Despite the increasing policy interest in leveraging the expertise of teachers returning from overseas Japanese schools, few empirical studies have investigated the utilization of such transnational experience in domestic educational practice. Based on an original survey, this study examines how in-service returning teachers utilize their overseas experience on the process of transnational mobility. The findings are twofold. First, the analysis identifies two key dimensions of utilization―frequency and mode―through which four distinct typologies emerge: multifaceted utilization, moderate utilization (learning and instruction focused), moderate utilization (minority-support focused), and restricted utilization. Second, these typologies are shaped by a range of factors across the professional trajectory, including prior experience with minority-background students, collegial collaboration during overseas assignments, timing and location of post-return placement, and gender. The findings show that the utilization of overseas experience varies across transnational mobility, depending on individual pathways and institutional contexts. This paper concludes by discussing policy implications for supporting returning teachers and recommending further investigations into the integration of transnational teaching experience within domestic education systems.

This study projects the demand for public school teachers in Japan and examines the potential emergence of a teacher surplus amidst population decline. Using official statistics, the study employs the conventional framework developed by Ushiogi and Yamasaki, based on student enrollment, student-teacher ratios (STRs), and teacher turnover. Results indicate three main findings. First, the number of required teachers is projected to fall substantially, with student enrollment projected to decrease due to the rapidly declining birthrate. Second, turnover will fluctuate due to the staged extension of the retirement age, producing temporary dips in retirements. Third, these dynamics will create temporary surpluses around 2030 (elementary schools) and 2032 (both elementary and lower secondary schools). Additional years with markedly reduced demand (e.g., 2028, 2036-2037) will likely suppress new hiring nationwide. These findings underscore the importance of long-term workforce planning, suggesting that temporary surpluses can be redirected into improving educational quality through further reductions in STRs. Additionally, these dynamics may offer insights not only for Japan but also for other East Asian countries experiencing rapidly declining birthrates.

This study investigates the role of the concept of energy in Dewey’s works during his time at Columbia University. It reveals that Dewey’s philosophy and pedagogy are founded on his energetic ontology: Both human beings and natural beings are certain modes of energy that interact with and interpenetrate each other. This ontological insight provided a theoretical foundation for Dewey to (1) establish a theory of the organic continuity of humanity and nature and demonstrate the dynamism of human development, (2) interpret experience as a single continuous interaction of diverse modes of energy, (3) conceptualize the control and utilization of human energy as a central problem of education, (4) conceive of the vital energy of students as the essence of education, and (5) illustrate the process of education and human development as the interaction among the energies of students, teachers, and the environment. Consequently, Dewey’s pedagogy encourages educators to cultivate the moral courage that sustains their investigation into the ever-evolving dynamics of the vital energy of learners and various modes of energy in the environment. It provides a standpoint for consistently reconstructing education based on reflection on the ever-expanding possibilities of human experience within each specific situation.

In this study, we developed a teacher education curriculum that addresses issues related to reflection. Reflection has been adopted as a basic philosophy of teacher education policy in many countries. However, the concept of reflection has also been criticized in teacher education. In particular, the following problems were identified: (1) loss of teacher autonomy in reflection; (2) difficulty in collaborative reflection; (3) disregard for the social and institutional backgrounds of education; and (4) limiting the content of reflection on technical issues. As a framework for our curriculum development, a matrix consisting of two dimensions, “ethical/moral” and “more integral/more objective,” was created, and five classes were developed based on this matrix. To evaluate the curriculum, we interviewed three graduate students (in-service teachers) who attended all the classes. The results showed that moral reflection varied among the participants, whereas all participants engaged in ethical reflection. These findings suggest that our curriculum is effective in encouraging broader and deeper reflective practice.

In Japanese local administrations, the Board of Education, a collegial body typically comprising five members, is responsible for public K-12 education. To maintain political neutrality and impartiality, deliberations are conducted to determine policy directions. While the attributes and composition of board members could influence policy outcomes, the appointment of board members has been a relatively understudied topic. Utilizing nationwide data, this study examines the demographic composition of board members across Japan’s 47 prefectures, focusing on gender, occupation, and the intersections thereof. These elements have been selected to capture the extent of diversity at the heart of the policy-making process. The findings reveal that, in terms of gender, each prefecture has unique practices regarding women’s appointments. Regarding occupation, individuals with high-prestige statuses are more likely to be appointed. Furthermore, the study uncovered a gender gap in the professions of board members. The recent increase in female members is notable, as these women tend to hold diverse, relatively less-prestigious professions distinct from their male counterparts. This indicates that women’s empowerment not only promotes gender equality but also enhances occupational and socioeconomic diversity within boards.

This paper analyzes the educational practices on Minamata disease conducted by teachers belonging to the Minamata Ashikita Kogai Study Circle, a voluntary study group held from the late 1970s to the 1980s, during a transitional period for Japanese kogai kyoiku [education on industrial pollution] and environmental education. The analysis results elucidate the process in which the teachers in the Circle restructured their practices from kogai kyoiku focusing on scientifically objectifying the victims of Minamata disease, which peaked in the early 1970s, and denouncing the harm done by Chisso (the company responsible for the environmental pollution), to an alternative kogai kyoiku exploring and questioning one’s own existence and life within the connections among the self, Minamata disease, the company responsible, and the victims.

The COVID-19 pandemic caused many educational activities to stagnate. Amid this unprecedented event, teachers took various measures to ensure that students’ learning was not disrupted. Studies on teachers in Japan have accumulated at a remarkable rate, while focusing only on a single country and on educational issues within that country. However, teachers located between nations, as in overseas Japanese schools, have been overlooked. Therefore, the experiences of Japanese teachers who faced the pandemic overseas have not been the subject of research. This study explores how teachers confronted and addressed the crisis from a transnational perspective through interviews with those dispatched to overseas Japanese schools during the pandemic.

The findings are twofold. First, the teachers faced three crises in the early stages of the pandemic: “school closures” due to local quarantine measures, “teacher shortages” due to the inability of newly dispatched teachers to leave Japan, and “student dispersal” due to the temporary return of Japanese residents to Japan. In particular, the problems of cross-border migration, such as teacher shortages and student dispersal, are crises unique to overseas Japanese schools located between nations. Therefore, teachers were forced to reorganize the Japanese curriculum, establish online classes consistent with local school closure policies, deal with subject and homeroom teacher shortages, and care for children in different countries and regions. However, due to their precarious position, overseas Japanese schools had difficulty receiving adequate public support from Japan or their host countries and had to deal with the crisis independently.

Second, the teachers addressed the crisis by utilizing the resources at hand in response to the environments surrounding the schools. Specifically, they worked with teachers in Japan and overseas Japanese schools to create classes during school closures. Also, they established school systems which resolved the teacher shortage through online collaboration between teachers in the host country and Japan. Furthermore, they expanded existing curricula and timetables to deal with the diverse needs of displaced children. These educational practices can be called “transnational crisis response.” However, in some cases, there were negative consequences, such as the fragmentation of teaching staff and the closure of schools.

Based on these findings, the final section of this paper discusses the challenges of educational systems based on theoretical nationalism and the possibilities for teachers’ transnational practice.