Mushrooms are unique microorganisms, which can be served as food and as traditional medicine, especially in Asian countries. The vegetative phase of mushrooms is performed by the growth of dikaryotic mycelium that is produced by mating between two monokaryons with different mating types. When the mycelium encounters optimal conditions for differentiation, it forms the sexual organ, i.e., fruiting-bodies. However, many mushrooms are non-edible or poisonous against human beings. Therefore, the taxonomic identification of mushrooms is very important for avoiding the lethal effect of those mushrooms.
Fruiting-bodies of edible mushrooms have nutritional functions because they contain low molecular weight carbohydrates such as trehalose, mannitol, and arabinitol, with indigestible polysaccharides such as β-glucan, heteroglucan and chitin that are the components of their cell walls. These mushrooms also contain proteins, lipids, minerals, and vitamins which are valuable food ingredients. Moreover, the fruiting-bodies of medicinal mushrooms may contain potential bioactive compounds, some of which are effective as anti-tumor agents, the others are effective to improve various diseases which may occur during ageing of the human body. Recently, the medicinal effects of mushrooms were focused on lifestyle diseases such as high blood pressure, hyperlipemia and diabetes, osteoporosis, allergosis, and dementia. In this review, current progress in research on edible and medicinal mushrooms as functional foods and medicines is introduced.

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The first part of this review is a brief historic introduction of the taxonomic position of macro-fungi. The second part presents the ecological role of macro-fungi from the viewpoint of mycorrhiza. From the 18th century to early 20th century, organisms were recognized in a simplified two-kingdom system; Animalia and Plantae. In this system fungi are classified into the Plantae. In 1969, the five kingdom-system comprised of plantae, animalia and fungi was proposed and each of them was developed based on unique evolutionary schemes. Today, the results of molecular systematics show polyphyletism among the fungi in the five-kingdom system; there are "true-fungi" and "pseudo-fungi". True-fungi can be classified into 4 groups; Basidiomycota, Ascomycota, Zygomycota and Chytridiomycota. "Macro-fungi" belong to the true-fungi; some belong to the Basidiomycota and others to the Ascomycota. The ecological role of macro-fungi is discussed from the viewpoint of saprophytes. The importance of macro-fungi as a symbiont (mycorrhiza) of land plants has been gradually recognized and now we cannot discuss the ecological system of the land without considering the mycorrhiza.
In this review, the mycorrhizal type of land plants is overviewed and the ecological role of macro-fungi as mycorrhiza in the ecosystem is discussed.

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The purpose of this article is to introduce useful and characteristic chemical components of mushrooms as functional food stuffs and to review studies of mechanisms underlying fruit-body formation. Examples of useful components are trehalose, 5′-guanylic acid (5′-GMP), ergosterol (provitamin D2), 1-octen-3-ol and methyl cinnamate. In addition, carbohydrases (amylase, cellulase etc.) from ectomycorrhizal mushrooms such as Tricholoma matsutake and Lyophyllum shimeji are discussed with regard to the relationship between production and artificial cultivation conditions.

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The mushroom contains many biologically active compounds with high utility value such as polysaccharides, oligosaccharides, lipids, terpenoids, and steroids in their fruiting bodies and/or mycelium. Polysaccharide fractions in mushrooms have become of particular interest in recent years because of their anti-potential for tumors in bioassays in vitro and in vivo. For instance, enhancement of anti-tumor immunity after intraperitoneal injection and/or oral supplementation has been reported in animals such as mice. Typical anti-tumor polysaccharides have a main chain composed of β-(1→3)-linked D-glucopyranosyl residues, and β-(1→6)-linked D-glucopyranosyl residues attached as side chains to approximtely every 2-10 sugar residues of the main chain. In the case of Agarics blazei, the polysaccharide moiety of an anti-tumor fraction has a linear β-(1→6)-linked D-glucopyranosyl residues. Trehalose, one of the main oligosaccharides of the mushroom, can inhibit polyglutamine-mediate protein aggregation. Moreover, its oral administration has been found to result in beneficial effects in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington disease. Furthermore, Trehalose is suggested to be effective for anti-osteoposis. Also, lipophilic compounds isolated from mushrooms are of interest as biologically active materials, just like polysaccharides. The authors have examined the apoptosis- and differentiation-inducing effects of lipophilic extracts of mushrooms on HL60 human leukemia cells and established that the acetone-extract of Sarcodon aspratus, among several local and minor mushrooms, exerts marked inhibition of the growth of HL60 cells, with induction of apoptotic cell bodies, nuclear fragmentation, and nucleosomal DNA fragmentation. An active component was isolated by solid extraction followed by silica gel chromatography and identified as ergosterol peroxide by mass, 1D, and 2D NMR spectroscopy. Regarding differentiation-induction in HL60 cells, the ethanol extract of Ganoderma neojaponicum also showed marked effects. Advancing research on biological activity of mushroom components in light of the current result may well contribute to health enhancement and enrichment of the quality of life. In addition, it can be expected to benefit the mushroom-farmer's income.

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In the course of our search for natural biologically active materials from mushrooms, we found that an ethanol extract from the fruiting body of Ganoderma lucidum (Reishi, Mannentake) showed anti-androgenic activity (5α-reductase inhibitory activity) and estrogen-like activity [the proliferation activity of MCF-7 cells (human breast cancer)]. The inhibitory effects of methanol extracts of 19 edible and medicinal mushrooms on 5α-reductase activity were examined. The extract of G. lucidum showed the strongest 5α-reductase inhibitory activity. The effects of 102 methanol extracts of 40 mycelia, 9 culture fluids and 53 fruiting bodies of 40 strains of G. lucidum on 5α-reductase were investigated. The extract from the fruiting body of each strain was found to show the strongest 5α-reductase inhibitory activity among them. 5α-Reductase inhibitory activity-guided fractionation of the extract from the fruiting body of G. lucidum led to the isolation of two active compounds which were ganoderic acid DM and 5a-lanosta-7,9(11),24-triene-15α,26-dihydroxy-3-one with IC₅₀ of 10.6μM and 41.9μM respectively. A carboxyl group of the side chain of ganoderic acid DM is essential to elicit the inhibitory activity because there is much less activity from its methyl ester. The treatment of the fruiting body of G. lucidum or the extract prepared from it significantly inhibited the growth of the ventral prostate induced by testosterone in rats. Also, we found that ethanol extract from the fruiting body of G. lucidum showed significant effects on the proliferation of MCF-7 cells. This proliferation effect is related to the estrogenic activity of G. lucidum, because this proliferation activity was inhibited by the addition of the antiestrogenic compound ICI182,780. The ethanol extract of G. lucidum prevented ovariectomy-induced bone loss and decreased the concentration of osteocalcin in the blood serum, similar to the action of 17β- estradiol. The present data provide evidence that the ethanol extract of G. lucidum protects against bone loss caused by estrogen deficiency, without a substantial effect on the uterus. These results showed that G. lucidum might be a useful ingredient for the treatment of sex-hormone-related aging diseases such as benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and osteoporosis.

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It was once considered that many diseases develop only in persons who reached a certain age bracket. However, recently some conditions have appeared more dependent on the living habits or living environment of a person without correlation to aging. Lifestyle-related diseases such as hypertension, diabetes mellitus and hyperlipemia, as well as allergic symptoms, belong to this category. Allergy patients are drastically increasing, and the goal of ultimate curing is often difficult to achieve even though good medicines have been prescribed after proper diagnosis. For the treatment of allergic symptoms, pharmaceuticals such as steroid drugs are often prescribed by medical doctors. However, patients sometimes reject the treatments due to concern about known side effects.
Doctors have also difficulties in applying dosage and usage in prescriptions to individual cases. With such a background, studies to prevent or improve allergic symptoms based on food intake have attracted interest. This paper introduces an example of an animal experiment and a human case in which allergic symptoms were improved through eating mushrooms. We lay particular stress on the benefits of biochemical examination of blood parameters in atopic dermatitis, and dermal inflammation, as well as anti-inflammatory effects on collagenosis and chronic rheumatic arthritis.

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Hericium erinaceum is an edible mushroom, and its fruiting bodies have been used for the treatment of dyspepsia, gastric ulcer and enervation as a Chinese medicine in China. Recently, Hericium erinaceum has been reported to show antitumor action and antidiabetic activity. Also, hericenones and erinacines, which were isolated from Hericium erinaceum, have potent stimulating activity for nerve-growth factor (NGF) synthesis. Moreover, Hericium erinaceum has antioxidant properties and reduce platelet aggregation. In the present study, we investigated the neuroprotective effect of Hericium erinaceum on the ischemic brain damage in a middle cerebral artery occulusion (MCAO) model in mice. Hericium erinaceum (300 mg/kg, continuous 14-day p.o.) significantly decreased the size of the cerebral infarcts 1 day after the occulusion (4 h). These results suggest that Hericium erinaceum provides neuroprotection against focal cerebral ischemia and may be clinically useful for preventing cerebral infarction.

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In 1973, I visited South America, Peru and Bolivia for the first time as a free lance photographer. Thereafter I have reported nature in the Andes and Amazon source region and information about the local races and ruins every year. In this series, I introduce the plants deeply associated with human beings since ancient times and their utility including type of cultivation and wild seeds. The Inca people discovered many plants, developed them, studied them, and discovered how to make the best use of them. The tradition has been passed on to the current people. I researched the power that Incan civilization had and the power that supported the people living in the Andes, through nature and human coexistence.

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Brazil, located on the opposite side of the Earth from Japan, covers a vast land crossing over the equator, ranging from N.L. 5° to S.L. 33°. It consists of a great variety of ecosystems, from tropical rain forests to temperate climate, making this country extremely rich in biodiversity. There are approximately 40,000 species of wild plants, which accounts for about 10% of all species existing on the planet.
More than 3000 species of medicinal plants are utilized in Brazil including approximately 2000 wild species. Therefore, Brazil is a treasure house of medicinal plants.
Since its discovery by Cabral, a Portuguese navigator, in 1500, a large number of immigrants have come to Brazil, mostly from Europe and Japan. Additionally, many Africans have been brought by force to Brazil as slaves, making Brazil a multi-ethnic and multi-cultural country.
Because of this racial diversity, medicinal plants are utilized in various ways, depending on the ethnic groups, and the species used are distinct in each region.
Here I report the medicinal and edible plants utilized in Brazil, item by item

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The Japanese language has numerous expressions about food properties. Descriptive food terms not only describe food properties; they also provide insights into any given society or culture. In this article, I would like to explain a little about the historical, cultural and social background of some Japanese descriptive food words that are used frequently in winter.
“Atsu-atsu” means very hot. It is applied to oden (Japanese hotchpotch boiled in kelp-based broth seasoned with soy sauce), udon (Japanese wheat noodle) and gratin, etc. It has been used ever since the Muromachi era. The atsu-atsu dish stimulates our appetite in winter. It might be good medicine for patients when it is cold.
“Yawarakai ” is equivalent to “soft” or “tender”. The origin of the word might be “yowai ” (weak). Kunio Yanagita who is a famous Japanese folklorist pointed out that the teeth and jaws of modern people have become weaker and weaker since the Meiji era because they have always eaten soft and/or tender foods. On the other hand, Shiki Masaoka who is a famous haiku poet enjoyed yawarakai (soft) bread even though he was on his deathbed. Although yawarakai (soft or tender) food helps patients to obtain nutrient, eating yawarakai (soft or tender) food every day is not good for the healthy individual. As the origin of the word shows, “yawarakai ” (soft or tender) might be related to “yowai ”(weak).
“Aburakkoi ” corresponds to “oily” or “greasy”. It has been used since the Heian era. We often use “Aburakkoi ” in our daily lives. “Aburakkoi ” is used for various foods with a wide range of lipid content, and are related to several food properties such as the appearance, taste and texture.

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