Particulate matter of environmental and endogenous origin is a major determinant of innate immune activation across diverse pathological states. Environmental particles such as airborne dust, PM2.5, and micro- and nanoplastics enter the body through inhalation or ingestion and trigger inflammatory responses. Endogenous particles, including monosodium urate crystals, cholesterol crystals, calcium oxalate crystals, and amyloid-𝛽 aggregates, accumulate within tissues and sustain chronic inflammation. Despite their varied origins and physicochemical properties, these particles converge on conserved immunological pathways that shape inflammatory signaling. A central shared event is phagolysosomal disruption following macrophage uptake. This upstream injury initiates two mechanistically distinct pathways. One involves NLRP3 inflammasome assembly, caspase-1 activation, and maturation and release of IL-1𝛽. The other proceeds independently of NLRP3 and is characterized by particle-induced cell death and passive extracellular release of IL-1. Spatial regulation of organelle dynamics, particularly microtubule-dependent mitochondrial repositioning, is essential for efficient NLRP3 inflammasome assembly, whereas severe phagolysosomal damage preferentially promotes IL-1–dominant inflammation, exemplified by silica-induced pulmonary pathology. These mechanistic insights support therapeutic strategies tailored to specific inflammatory circuits. Potential approaches include inhibition of NLRP3 activation, neutralization of IL-1𝛽, suppression of IL-1 release, blockade of pyroptotic cell death, and stabilization of phagolysosomal membranes. Integrating these modalities provides a framework for precision management of particle-associated diseases, including gout, atherosclerosis, and pneumoconiosis. This review summarizes current advances and outlines the shared and divergent mechanisms through which particulate matter governs inflammatory outcomes.
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