In December,1886，while staying in Munich in his young days, Ōgai Mori (1862-1922) stated that “Besteht die wahre europäische Cultur nicht in der Erkenntniss der Freiheit und Schönheit im reisten Sinne des Wortes?” in his ‘Die Wahrheit über Nipon’, which was written against Edmund Naumann’s ‘Land und Leute der japanischen Inselkette.’ Through such experiences as this, and by studying medicine at universities in Germany, he could learn the spirit of “akademische Freiheit” there. He, who came to regard that spirit of the university in Germany as its ideal, published the essay titled ‘Daigaku no Jiyū o Ronzu’ (Über die akademische Freiheit) in July, 1889，shortly after he returned home.

　In this paper I tried to trace the process of his mind above in the relation of Franz Hofmann, Carl von Voit, Max von Pettenkofer, Robert Koch, Rudolf Virchow, Emil Du Bois-Reymond, Ernst Häckel, Hermann von Helmholtz and Albert Schwegler.

　This study also will be an important step in making Ōgai’s consciousness of the Western civilization clear.

　It is well known that both of the great novelists of the Meiji era, Ogai and Soseki, reacted to General Nogi’s Junshi, which symbolically announced the passing of an age. In this paper the author has the intention of analysing their methods of fictionalisation.

　After defining Ogai’s first historical novel, Okitsu Yagoemon no Isho，as written by the method of 《superposition》, the author remarks that Kokoro and Abe Ichizoku are novels focused upon disqualified men, who notwithstanding have pretensions to Junshi.

　Sensei, one of the Junshi-performers, writes a testament directed to Watashi, which seems to aim for permission for Junshi, for expiation of his own sin and finally at winning his partner’s confidence. This triple structure of 《confession》, the author says, makes this novel not a typical Junshi-novel but a 《parody》 of Nogi’s suicide.

　The other Junshi story, Abe Ichizoku, has a disqualified man as hero, too. In this novel, however, Ogai gives less emphasis to the requalification than to the classification of various cases of Junshi; and less to the suicide itself than to its disastrous consequences, the cause of which was an imperceptibly minimal accident. (This type of literature can be found, for example, in Ogai’s favorite German writer, Heinrich von Kleist.)

　As a whole, this paper rejects traditional approaches to these novels, so as to propose that we should regard them rather as subversive than as affirmative to the Junshi tradition.

　Kakuzo Okakura was expelled from the principal’s position of the Tokyo Arts School in 1898. He was separated for life from his beloved Hatsuko Hoshizaki in 1902. After these and other hardships, he became much interested in Buddhism and Taoism. His life style became, in some ways, that of a Taoist: he wore a Taoist robe; he moved from Tokyo to Izura, a completely isolated place and spent his free time reading and fishing.

　It is interesting to note that he regarded the two foreign women to whom he was very much attached, Mrs. Isabella Stewart Gardner and Priyanbada Devi Banerjee, as sacred presences of Taoism or Buddhism. In his letters and poems，he described these ladies as “white”, “alone” and “surrounded by flowers”. He called them “the moon”, a purifier of a dirty soul, and sometimes more directly “a Taoist”，“a Jade-tree” or “Kannon”. These ladies were important to Okakura more as sacred beings than as a lover or a mother-like figure. The White Fox, a fairy drama, which was dedicated to them and whose characters reflect them in some ways, is a story of salvation through self-sacrificing acts.

　Verbrannt wurden die meisten Bücher von Choko Ikuta zu Asche durch zwei Unfälle: zuerst durch die große Erdbebenkatastrophe in Tokyo 1923 und dann durch die Luftangriffe während des Zweiten Weltkrieges. Heute befinden sich nur noch hundert fremdsprachige Bücher, die glücklicherweise im Krieg zu seinem Geburtshaus gesandt wurden, wo das Ikuta-Choko-Archiv gegründet wurde. Etwa siebzig von ihnen, die Nietzsche und dessen Untersuchungen betreffen, erinnern uns an seine verschieden Schwierigkeiten bei den ersten Übersetzungen und an seine hervorragenden Leistungen; z.B. in “Zarathustra” (Nietzsche’s Werke, Bd. 7, Taschenausgabe, C.G. Naumann Verlag in Leipzig 1906) kann man 36 schwarze und rote Unterstriche und einige kurze Bemerkungen finden, die er selber eingetragen hat. Die mit der schwarzen Tinte geschriebenen Linien bedeuten (a) den Vergleich des deutschen Originales mit den englischen Texten, (b) die Stellen, die er linguistisch, semantisch und inhaltlich nicht ganz verstehen konnte; die mit dem roten Bleistift dagegen (a) die Hinweise auf falsche Übersetzungen, (b) seine Liebe zu den Aphorismen und (c) die Kritik an einem Ausspruch. Man kann heute seine dreimaligen Übersetzungen nicht genug schätzen.

　Samuraï du fief de Chôshû et l’un des plus grands “patriotes activistes” de la fin d’Edo, Shôïn YOSHIDA a suscité beaucoup d’intérêt parmi les intellectuels japonais d’après la Réforme de Meiji. Bien des études lui ont été consacrées jousqu'à nos jours; parmi elles celle de Tetsutaro KAWAKAMI, YOSHIDA Shôïn (1968) occupe une place spéciale. Elle la doit à son point de vue unique, à sa méthode d’interprétation élaborée sous l’influence de la littérature européenne, en particulier de l’école symboliste française. Le jeune KAWAKAMI avait traduit lui-mème l’essai de Paul Valéry sur Léonard de Vinci, qui lui a fourni en grande partie la base de sa propre activité critique.

　A la différence de la plupart des biographes qui ont tenté d’intégrer Shôïn dans son contexte, en s’appuyant essentiellement sur des faits historiques, KAWAKAMI s’intéresse à la fonction de la conscience de soi chez ce personnage, et il la dégage uniquement de la lecture des écrits de celui-ci. C’est l’univers spirituel inconscient de la société féodale que le critique tente de reconstruire, tout comme Valéry, à travers ce personnage. On pourrait dire que le sujet du livre est “l’inconscient collectif” où trempait l’âme des Samuraïs. D’après notre cntique, Shôïn incarne bien ce sentiment latent.

　En effet c’est dans ce héros que se concentrent toutes les problématiques du temps. Se fondant sur l’idée absolue de loyauté, il essaya d’y trouver une solution, mais en vain; il fut condamné à mort par le gouvernement shôgunal. Ne peut-on pas considérer sa vie comme une sorte de martyre? KAWAKAMI y voit une analogie avec la Passion de Jésus-Christ.

　Dès le début ou presque de sa carrière littéraire, il définissait, dans un article, Jésus-Christ comme l’idéal humain le plus pur. Et pendant toute sa vie de critique, l’image de cet idéal occidental l’a poussé à la recherche de la création d’une nouvelle figure idéale qui s’adaptât parfaitement au Japon moderne. En dernière analyse, il a trouvé la solution dans la tradition morale de bushido qui subsiste toujours dans notre inconscient. Voilà comment Shôïn est présenté comme un précurseur qui nous montre la possibilité d’un homme nouveau.

　One of Shakespeare’s early comedies, The Taming of the Shrew, has been acted most successfully upon the stages of all ages and in all countries. Its popularity seems to be based upon the man-woman relationship theme together with its great sense of fun. But the audience’s reception of the heroine’s metamorphosis, which forms the center of the drama, has not been unanimous. The various audience’s responses can be divided into three types: first, Katherine, the shrew, is tamed by Petruchio and seems to become an obedient wife, secondly, she learns to play an obedient wife, thirdly, she herself becomes a tamer.

　This paper is written with the aim of trying to fathom the author’s own intention regarding Kate’s metamorphosis, in other words the meaning of the “taming” itself ; by comparing the work with its probable sources, by making reference to contemporary thinking about marriage, and by concentrating upon relevant aspects of the work’s adaptations in England during the period 1667-1844 and in Japan during the Meiji and the Taishō eras.

　The original was rarely presented, when those adaptations were put on the stage, and Katherine’s taming by Petruchio seems to have been acceptable to the audiences. The particular conditions relating to the theatres of the times will also be examined in the following chapters.

　George Eliot, a nineteenth-century novelist, translated two German philosophical works into English with a sincere intention of leaving their excellent thoughts to educate English nations ethically and socially. From this point of view she wrote “Middlemarch” in an English style, which is filled with Goethe’s idea of self-education called ‘Bildung’. It originally arose from his ‘Metamorphose’ theory of plants that individual organs make up a plant by closely interacting with each other. In ‘Wilhelm Aleisters Lehrjahre’ Goethe extended this theory and applied it to human-beings, indicating the close relation between a society and individuals having such various personalities. Another ideal of Goethe described in the novel is harmonious development of manifold human natures by way of closely combining view with deed.

　 George Eliot dealt with those ideals in ‘Middlemarch’ by referring to St. Theresa, Dorothea, Lydgate and Ladislaw, who all desire to shape their thought and deed in noble agreement in the human society. As a result, the above ideal, harmonious development of manifold human natures, is realised by the marriage of Dorothea, an intellectual ethical woman, and Will Ladislaw, endowed with nature of sensibility and art. As the name ‘Will’ suggests, his character is taken from ‘Wilhelm Meister’ a reflector of Goethe.

　The purpose of this study is to elucidate the dramatic technique (Dramaturgie) of Kinoshita Junji’s play Yūzuru (“The Twilight Crane”), which is based on the folktale Tsurunyōbō (“The Crane Wife”). This will be done through a comparison with the Korean folk play Yennal Yetchoge Whoywhoy (“The life of a Hero”, by Choi Inhun), which bears numerous resem- blances to Yūzuru, and also by comparing both plays with their original source folktales.

　The dramatic technique a writer employs when composing a work can generally be divided into two categories——the internal and the external. In the case of Yūzuru, the internal dramatic technique is evidenced as follows: the female hero of the folktale Tsurunyōbō is changed into a male hero in the play, and through this hero Yohyō ，the conflicts arising from human desires and the accompanying tragedy, are emphasized.

　Nevertheless, research up to now on Yūzuru has mainly focused on such external dramatic techniques as the appearance of new characters (Sōdo and Unzu, for example) who are not in the original folktale, or on the poetic charm of the dialogue in Yūzuru. Accordingly, productions of Yūzuru (for example, Yamamoto Yasuei no Kai), following these interpretations, have continued to make Tsū the center of the play.

　However, as a conclusion, to this study, I would like to suggest that Yohyō , who best reflects the central internal dramatic technique of Yūzuru, be made the hero of the play in future productions.