This paper’s purpose is to provide an overview of the history of Noh performances by females and introduce the role of the concept of art in a message from a pioneer female Noh performer, Tsumura Kimiko. Noh performances have devised expressive techniques based on the male body. It is a “traditional” art form that has achieved stylistic perfection on the basis of the “male art.”

In the late Meiji and Taisho eras, Noh’s popularity as a “hobby” spread among women, with “female masters” who taught their families playing an active role in the “Noh profession.” In the Taisyo era, Tumura Kimiko （津村紀三子 1902–1974）, who had the ambition to become a “Noh actor,” performed Hagoromo on a stage in Keijo Prefecture (Present day Seoul Special City).

After World War II, there was momentum for women’s liberation. Yamashina Yaji (Former name: Keiko) （山階弥次：前名：山階敬子 1925–）, Maruyama Tokie （丸山登喜江 1911–1989）, and other female Noh performers, including Tsumura Kimiko, were granted the status of performer of the Kanze school by the Noh-gaku Kyo-kai (1948). The number of female Noh performers has increased since then.

The establishment of the Noh performances by females was “evaluated” and “prized” from the perspective of the concept of art by the renowned critic Sakamoto Seccho （坂元雪鳥 1879–1938）. Tsumura Kimiko said in a 1972 interview in Nohgaku Times that art is a thing of the “world” （「『芸術』は『天下』のもの」 No. 404）. This could be interpreted as meaning that artworks are free from gender differences, a concept that has helped many female Noh performers in this century.

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Rhythmic gymnastics emerged through the influences of Noverre, Demenÿ, Duncan and Dalcroze, among others, who developed innovative expressions and exercise systems within the fields of dance and gymnastics (International Gymanastics Federation, publication date unknown). Subsequently, due to the expansion of competitive elements in rhythmic gymnastics, the first Code of Points was issued.

However, the 1973 edition of the Code of Points included the specification that a fundamental basis of any kind of ethnic or dance elements must not be required (Japan Gymnastics Association, 1973：20). However, in the 1980s, the Bulgarian team incorporated dance elements in its choreography on the basis of this Code of Points, and attempted the addition of national identity to its routines. As a result, many accomplishments were made by the Bulgarian team, leading up to the present day (2022). This study examines the history of rhythmic gymnastics and the process that led to the issuing of the Code of Points, and clarifies the reasons for the prohibition of fundamental dance elements in the 1973 edition of the Code of Points. In addition, this study considers the reasons why the Bulgarian team was able to intentionally incorporate folk dance elements, and was victorious even though such elements had been prohibited. Furthermore, this study identifies the concrete influence exerted by these Bulgarian routines on rhythmic gymnastics thereafter.

The results of this study demonstrate that respective influences, namely the philosophy of Medau, the f irst President of FIG (Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique), the routines created by Robeva, former head coach of the Bulgarian national team, and the innovation of Aburuzzini, President of the Rhythmic Gymnastics Technical Committee, shaped the history of the development of the modern “Artistry” criteria of the Rhythmic Gymnastics Code of Points.

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The Awa Odori, nowadays spread throughout Japan, is a Bon Dance which originated in Tokushima City. The Awa Odori festival in Tokushima City has recently experienced an element of confusion over its operation, and it is definitely necessary now to grasp the current situation of its bearers in order to ensure its stable operation.

The purpose of this study is to clarify the details of the actual activities of the corporate groups participating in the Awa Odori and to show their characteristics by comparing them with the corporate teams participating in the Mihara Yassa Odori. Questionnaire surveys were conducted to examine the overall trend of corporate groups/teams in terms of the composition of their participants, the amount of practice, and their consciousness toward practice, and then supplementary interviews were conducted for individual cases. Responses were obtained from 54 corporate groups of the Awa Odori (with a response rate of 69.2%) and 14 corporate teams of the Mihara Yassa Odori (with a response rate of 59.1%).

The results revealed that the corporate groups participating in the Awa Odori were characterized by a wide range of participants, both within and from outside of the company and the region, and by diversity in the degree of commitment to practice and the attitude toward seeking participation in practice. Factors that make such diverse participation possible include the characteristics of the dance as a processional-type of dance that enables a wide range of formations, the existence of fee-based performance sites and the collaborative relationship derived from the folk performing arts themselves. The fact that the corporate groups participating in the Awa Odori allow for the participation of a diverse range of participants, regardless of regions or levels of proficiencies, suggests that they are contributing to the development of the festival as bearers.

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