Based on census records during the Japanese period, oral interviews and literature reviews, the migratory routes of Quanzhou carpenters in Taiwan between 1910 and 1928 were traced. Population structure and networks, interactions between the related carpentry guilds and their job scopes were carefully analyzed. Results show that the carpentry skills inherited by the Quanzhou Xidi carpenters were actually the outcome of a gradual fusion between the essence of Ming dynasty development and the accumulation of temporal wisdom passed down from their patrilineal societies. Upon arrival in Taiwan, the migration trend of the Tangshan carpenters gradually evolved from single nodal concentration (staying within their own clans or villages) to inter-state (township and/or county-level) migration through inter-referrals. Eventually, patrilineal skill-imparting practices could no longer sustain the ever-changing socio-economic trend, and thus led to the collapse of the traditional system. In-land migration brought about geographical and subsequently, temporal transmission of carpentry skills, which led to the creation of locally distinctive styles. The initial intention of outsourcing overseas skilled carpentry teams had not only indirectly revealed the essence of ′foreign′ traditional carpentry in the local environment, but had also led to the unique fusion of ethnic, geographical and construction skill integration in Taiwan.

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This study explores the typology of the Urban Hanok, created as a new housing type from traditional Hanoks, in the process of Seoul′s urbanization since the 1930s. It analyzes and compares the periodic characteristics of building arrangements in divided plots as well as the composition of interior space in buildings arranged when the new urban residential areas were organized. Based on this analysis, the objective is to discuss why a specific Urban Hanok type was selected as an ideal housing standard and how it spread at that time. Case study sites selected for this study include the residential area of Gahoe-dong during the 1930s, Bomun-dong during the 1940s and Yongdu-dong during the 1960s. First, the typological differences between Urban Hanoks formed through urban planning will be examined for each case study. Second, the differences in space composition for tri-form Hanok building areas (body and two separate wings) as well as the differences in building arrangements within their plots will be meticulously analyzed. This study will conclude that the cultural conservativeness of traditional Hanoks was maintained, but at the same time modern rationality was pursued at the early stage of Urban Hanok formation. In addition, the diversity of Hanok forms was secured by differing plot allocations in relation to streets and modifying Hanok types according to site conditions. However, uniform layout and model copies became apparent in the later periods of Urban Hanok development. In other words, Hanok construction modes have changed to improve efficiency through uniform mass production.

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Han-ok, the traditional Korean house, has the timber frame structure which is common in East Asia. Because the timber frame structure requires a vast amount of hand-cutting woodwork, prefabrication based on computer aided manufacturing (CAM) should be applied to reduce the construction cost of Han-ok. In order to implement them successfully, it is necessary to manage the building information in an organized system based on data handling technology, such as building information modeling (BIM) and parametric modeling. Three-dimensional, object-based parametric modeling technology not only enhances the construction process but also associates well with design study, especially when applying it to Han-ok. By applying the principle of Kan, the Korean traditional concept of a bay, this paper suggests a parametric modeling methodology that reduces modeling tasks and increases the efficiency of design study.

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This paper reviews how Williamsburg, a historic town in Virginia, U.S.A, acquired the status of a national heritage site. Williamsburg was the capital of the colony of Virginia in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The early twentieth century witnessed a boom in commemorating Colonial sites in the U.S. For 150 years, the Williamsburg site had remained an ordinary local town, but it was restored during the 1920s to create a place where the nation′s history could be illustrated. The prevailing passion for history caused the reconstruction to surpass the town′s original factual conditions, and the project was strongly promoted. This illustrates how ardent nationalism can affect historical preservation. To justify Williamsburg′s value as a heritage site, not only was a new town constructed but also archeological and architectural research was conducted to support the process of restoration. The criteria for the restoration were based on a specific period and ignored developments that took place since the nineteenth century. Although the restoration project itself was managed by a private foundation, official legislation designated the town as a national heritage site. This case illustrates how heritage can be created through attitude toward preservation.

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This study examines the advances that reinforced concrete structures have gone through from the introduction of concrete to Korea in the early 20th century to the development of composite action between reinforcement and cement. At the earliest stage, concrete was used exclusively for foundations and ground floors and was later used as the floor system in multiple story construction with steel beams and corrugated steel plates. As an example of this progression, in the Chosen Hotel which was completed in 1914, steel bars were used for the reinforcing materials in the concrete floors and steel beams were covered with concrete for fire-proofing. This led to the use of prefabricated Kahn type reinforced concrete girders in the construction of the Chosen Government-General in 1918. In the late 1920′s, the introduction of stirrups and bent-up reinforcement using the Hennebique method in construction enabled the integration of columns, floors and girders into a composite action structure. For instance, at this time, the application of this method was adopted in public buildings including the main office building of the train station and government buildings in Gyeongseong.

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Among the extant single-story dapo type buildings (having a densely arranged bracketing unit layer), seven buildings have double layers of interior bracketing units: an upper-layer and a lower-layer. The aim of this study is to find out their character, historical development and significance. Firstly, they are classified into Group A and B by the role of upper-layers as structural supports. Each group is then further divided into two subgroups, according to the existence of projections in their upper-layer bracketing units. Groups A1 and B1, the no-projection types, are used in the same building from late Goryeo as a multi-layered system; that could be a part of the general method of dapo type buildings in late Goryeo and before. The upper-layers belonging to Groups A2 and B2 have projections of their bracketing units; these are mainly to achieve a more splendid interior aspect, by imitating the valued aspects of other bracketing units in this period; the structural roles of those projections are however relatively trivial. The construction of upper-layers in roof structures had commenced by the 11^th century. In extant Korean buildings, the 17^th century saw the peak of the development of double-layered systems, before their decline in the 18^th century.

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This is a case study on the restoration of historic buildings in the historic town Zhaohua, which was damaged in the 5/12 Sichuan Earthquake. Based on post-earthquake investigations of damage and the restoration of historic buildings in Zhaohua, the authors described the restoration conditions of historic buildings both during and following the recovery process. The purpose of this paper is to analyze the restoration methods of historic buildings, in order to preserve the historic district after the earthquake. The authors summarize by suggesting that governments should make a restoration plan which provides for the long term (5-10 years), and focus on not only cultural properties, but also undesignated historic buildings in the historic district.

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Construction project participants that comprise the construction supply chain are increasingly making use of information technology (IT) to manage their businesses. Among various applications of IT to the construction industry, the construction scheduling technique has progressed drastically as scheduling software has become commercially available to project participants. However, the limitation of applying IT to construction scheduling still exists due to the fact that the schedule developed mostly by a general contractor (GC) or a construction management firm (CM) tends not to take the subcontractors′ schedule information into consideration. The objective of this research was to formalize subcontractors′ planning and scheduling processes through the development of a knowledge representation model (KRM). The KRM represented the definitions of concepts and the relationships between concepts in the construction scheduling domain. In order to formalize the construction scheduling process from the subcontractor′s standpoint, an inductive approach was used. Even though the subcontractor′s scheduling process varied, the KRM provided in-depth insight into the scheduling process. Various subcontractors′ scheduling processes could be retrieved by conducting comparative analysis with the KRM developed by this research.

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While VE in South Korea must be performed according to law, there is no standard evaluation method for the design values and value indices, and few studies have been conducted on this topic. The methods that are currently in use convert the function and performance evaluation values to grades. Although these methods allow evaluation factors with different properties to be handled in the same way, they can produce different revaluation results depending on the grade setting. Therefore, for the reasonable and effective improvement of the values of buildings, a reasonable value evaluation model that can produce objective and consistent results is needed. In this study, a value evaluation process that systematizes the building element design evaluation process was proposed. A numerical value evaluation model for calculating the cost, physical performance, workability, and index used in the evaluation process was also proposed. The normalization and linear-transformation theories were applied to the proposed numerical value evaluation model, which produces a value index by conducting value evaluation based on mathematical theories rather than by converting the function and performance to grades, as is currently being performed in the existing methods. Thus, the proposed model is expected to yield reliable and objective evaluation results.

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Recently, there has been an increase in the size, diversification, and specialization of the construction methods of underground sites, particularly due to the need for more efficient utilization of underground spaces in downtown sites where space is limited and land prices high. This study presents a number of procedures that can be used to review site constraints and constructability, and to evaluate the economic efficiency and safety of soil retaining walls in order to select the optimum wall for the given site conditions. Furthermore, this study presents a quantitative analysis model to determine whether the selected soil retaining wall is able to deal with the site risks by using the forced decision method and binary weighting analysis. The study also presents a process model in order to select the optimum soil retaining wall for the given site conditions through the analysis of constructability, economic efficiency, stability and risk factors.

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′Energy management′ is a challenging task for individual departments within universities, especially when several departments occupy the same facility. To assist individual departments in dealing with the complex energy management topics, this study aims to establish the Benchmarking Energy Efficiency by Space Type (BEEST) method. The BEEST is developed around the core concept of ′space type′. It is proposed that the spaces within a department be categorized into several ′space types′; and for each space type, its ′standard operation settings′ be defined to further estimate the ′standard energy consumption′ for the department, with energy prediction module such as eQuest, as its energy consumption benchmark. The energy efficiency index of a department and its facility can then be assessed by comparing its ′actual energy consumption′ against the estimated ′standard energy consumption. The problem areas can be identified and energy saving action plans recommended by conducting further analyses, such as energy analyses by space types, floors, and equipment types as well as sensitivity analyses of the energy reduction effects of various ′standard settings′. The Department of Architecture of the national university NTUST in Taiwan is used as a case to demonstrate how the BEEST functions as an effective energy management tool.

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There often exist multiple equilibria in the algorithm results of metagame theory and conflict analysis, and some of the equilibria may be non-Pareto optimal or low stable. Thus, it is still a problem for decision-makers to choose among the equilibria. On the basis of the traditional metagame algorithm, this paper develops a new algorithm by taking ″foresight incentive″ into consideration, so as to obtain more terse and stable equilibria. The analysis steps of the foresight incentive algorithm include generating a route for each player in each scenario, identifying the check-point in each route, examining if each check-point is foresight incentive point, and analyzing the stability of each scenario for each player. Finally, through the case study of a real construction conflict, the effectiveness and superiority of the foresight incentive algorithm are verified.

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Currently, Building Information Modeling (BIM) has been recognized as one of the main processes and technologies that can enhance design and construction quality by simulating and optimizing business works for better performance, lower costs, and shorter lead times. Accordingly, BIM has emerged as one of the main issues of environmentally friendly and energy-efficient design in the field of architecture. In particular, several researches on BIM-based energy performance assessments have been carried out focusing on the early design phase. However, energy performance assessment tools have a fundamental problem concerning data interoperability among them owing to the lack of a standardized data format and access method.
To address such issues, an Industry Foundation Classes (IFC)-based Input Data File (IDF) converter was developed in this research to use as a middleware to minimize the loss of information and generate additional information during the performance analysis process. This paper introduces the IDF converter supporting energy performance assessments, integrated material library, etc. and demonstrates the efficiency of its use in a case study.

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Timber-frame buildings are an important architectural heritage of China, and they play a pivotal role in Chinese architectural history. However the restoration of wood components in ancient buildings has gained significant importance in recent years. Based on the modular theory of ancient Chinese architecture this research includes a case study on the Shenyang Imperial Palace, in order to determine a correlation between the volume of large-size wood parts and the building areas. Linear regression equations have been derived to estimate the volume of large-size wood parts efficiently, and the total volume of the large-size wood parts of the Shenyang Imperial Palace has been estimated as 2912.3 m³. It was found that the regression equations for the flush gable roof type buildings are accurate and can be applied not only to the case study in particular but also to other buildings as well. Finally, determining the volume will bridge the communication gap between the people concerned with restoration and the timber suppliers, which is an increasing concern in China with regard to preservation of ancient buildings and historical monuments.

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During a construction project, the cost of progress is the most important factor affecting the profitability of the project. It would be beneficial to the contractor to have prior knowledge concerning the cost of progress of a project. This study uses case-based reasoning (CBR) to predict the cost of progress in order to develop appropriate strategies. This study also investigates genetic algorithms (GAs) for weight generation and applies them to a real project case. To achieve the objective, quantitative data have been collected from real completed construction projects. The proposed prediction system, namely EVAS-CBR-GAs, was then performed on the identified influential variables. The results show that the presented methodology can consistently reduce errors and potentially be useful for owners and contractors in the early financial planning stage. Recognizing this need, the author has developed a comprehensive system for planning and controlling the cost of contractor progress.

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The design of a standard housing unit and the consequences of multiplying the unit in some larger assembly involve a certain degree of organizing principles. The most prevalent organizing principles in housing design are modular idea and symmetry. Both are of utmost importance as vehicles to guide all the components in the housing and to organize its spatial layouts. Modular ideas have been promoted in an attempt to minimize building costs as well as to execute efficient and accurate construction. Symmetrical operations function as the organizational mechanism for housing design. The employment of various symmetries in housing design is manifold and they apply to housing organization as a whole. They also apply to a standard unit with its typological variations and the grouping of multiple units in a larger assemblage. This paper analyzes a series of Rudolph M. Schindler′s housing designs to illustrate the potential for the conscious application of the modular idea and symmetry in housing design as compositional methodologies.

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The mega frame system is considered to be suitable for skyscrapers, because it offers the structural efficiency of providing high rigidity against lateral loads, with a minimum amount of structural materials. Since the super tall mega frame building has a large number of elements and nodes, dynamic analyses of this system require significant computational resources. Therefore, a matrix condensation technique can be employed to efficiently predict the structural behavior of a mega frame structure. However, the computational resources required for the matrix condensation process of a super tall mega frame structure by a conventional condensation technique are significant, because hundreds of thousands of degrees of freedoms (DOFs) should be condensed. To overcome this difficulty, the purpose of this study is set as the development of an efficient matrix condensation method with accuracy for a mega frame structure. Mega elements, sub-mega elements and multi-level condensation techniques are developed for saving the computing resources required for matrix condensation. A special purpose computer program for the analysis of mega frame structures has been developed, and structural analyses of a 100-story mega frame structure were performed to verify the effectiveness of the proposed method. Based on the analysis results, it was confirmed that the proposed method could provide an efficient analytical model with outstanding accuracy, requiring significantly reduced computational efforts for both matrix condensation and structural analysis. Therefore, the developed computer program is expected to provide an efficient means for the preliminary design of mega frame structures.

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The replacement of conventional steel reinforcement with fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) bars was investigated previously to overcome the problem of steel reinforcement corrosion and structural deterioration in concrete structures exposed to aggressive environments. However, the lower modulus of elasticity of FRP materials and their non-yielding characteristic results in large deflection and wide cracks in FRP-reinforced concrete members. Hence, there is a need for a suitable design philosophy and for methods that can provide a reliable estimate of such behavior.
This paper evaluates the behavior of simply supported concrete slabs reinforced with bars of glass fiber-reinforced plastic (GFRP) and subjected to four-point monotonic loading. The slabs had sizes of 4000 × 1000 × 150 mm and 4000 × 1000 × 200 mm with different reinforcement ratios. This research investigated the flexural and shear limit states of the slabs, including pre-cracking behavior, cracking pattern and width, deflections, ultimate capacities and strains, and failure modes. The information presented is valuable for future field application and development of design guidelines for FRP-reinforced concrete structures.

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Electric arc furnace (EAF) slag is a by-product of steel production. Because the amount of slag produced is increasing each year, there is a growing need for effective methods of recycling this material. In this study, simple beam tests proposed by Ichinose were carried out to estimate the bond performance of reinforced concrete beams with EAF oxidizing slag aggregates. The main test variable was the type of aggregate used. A total of four specimens were designed to estimate the bond properties of top and bottom bars for the concrete. The bond test results revealed that the specimens with EAF oxidizing slag aggregates showed better bond performance than the basic specimen with natural aggregates. Furthermore, the experimentally observed bond strength of the specimens was compared with the theoretical results obtained from existing formulas. Consequently, the analytical results considering the effect of transverse reinforcement showed reasonable agreement with the experimental results.

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The schedule hierarchy in a construction project generally has multiple levels. The highest level is a milestone schedule, and is represented in bar chart format. The middle level is an integrated project schedule, and is represented in the Critical Path Method (CPM) format. The lowest level is a detailed working schedule, and is usually represented by a bar chart. Traditional scheduling techniques, such as the Arrow Diagramming Method, or the Precedence Diagramming Method, cannot represent all the schedules within a schedule hierarchy in identical formats. However, the Beeline Diagramming Method (BDM) technique can represent all kinds of schedule, within a schedule hierarchy, in CPM format. I describe the basic concepts, principles, interpretation methods, and schedule computation methods of the BDM as a new networking technique that can represent all kinds of overlapping relationships between activities. I then present an example of representing all levels of schedules within a schedule hierarchy, using the BDM technique, as well as BDM networks of levels 2, 3, and 4, in a real construction project.

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A new seismic control device using a ball screw mechanism as an apparent mass amplifier has been developed, which is referred to as the tuned viscous mass damper (TVMD). This device enables effective seismic control using a tuned mass. For a multiple-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) seismic control system incorporated with the TVMD, a design method based on numerical optimization has been previously presented by the authors. However, simpler design methods that are suitable for a practical design have not yet been presented. At the preliminary design stage, it is essential for structural designers to understand the seismic response characteristics of the structure in terms of modal responses. However, a complex-valued eigenvalue analysis, which most structural designers are unfamiliar with, is required for accurate seismic response estimation. This is because the seismic control system incorporated with TVMDs is nonproportionally damped. In this paper, the authors propose a seismic response estimation method that does not require a complex valued analysis. An analysis example illustrates that the square root of the sum of the square (SRSS) of the maximum modal responses derived from the undamped real eigenvalue analysis gives a good approximation in practical terms.

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The study intends to develop energy load prediction equations which can be easily used to estimate the energy consumption of multi-residential buildings in the central climatic zone in Korea during the early design stage. Based on an intensive literature search, energy strategies and performance levels which affect heating and cooling energy consumption were established for a reference baseline building. To analyze the sensitivity of each energy strategy to overall performance, the table of Orthogonal Array was used to decrease the number of experiments to 81 in spite of the fact that the required number for carrying out the simulation was 3¹²(=531,441). The computer simulation was performed using EnergyPlus. At the same time, the Analysis of Variance was conducted to estimate the relative importance of each energy factor. The results of the ANOVA were used as data for multiple regression analysis which could develop the load prediction equations. The proposed equation will provide architects with a simple and yet reliable tool to estimate the energy load of a building at the early design stage. At the same time, it will enable architects to develop the best design solution in terms of energy performance.

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This study introduces a plan to improve ventilation effectiveness through an appropriate operable window opening area and partitioning/placement to promote natural ventilation based on unit location and elevation. To predict the natural ventilation performance of a high-rise building, a total of 800 ventilation rate data were calculated according to the unit location, elevation and opening area (2.5%, 5.0%, 7.5% and 10% of the floor area at 8 locations and 25 different elevations) by using a network ventilation simulation. A CFD-based wind tunnel simulation, based on 5 alternative cases, was implemented to analyze the efficiency based on operable window partitioning/placement under the single-sided ventilation condition. The interpretation room is situated in a relatively sheltered location and wind tunnel trials were carried out in order to visualize the resultant local wind pattern around the room for a prevailing wind direction. This investigation also revealed that wind effects can either reinforce or oppose each other. This was verified by tracking the airflow patterns through a room at a range of window positions.

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In general, HVAC systems for clean room facilities require significant energy to maintain the indoor environment. Due to high air change rates, reducing operating energy consumptions has been a critical issue. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the energy saving potentials of indirect and direct evaporative cooler assisted 100% outdoor air system (IDECOAS) serving a clean room. This research also provides a practical insight on how cooling and heating coil loads can be reduced and how to design the proposed system. In this study, it was assumed that a clean room is served by four different types of HVAC systems: a variable air volume system (VAV), an air washer system (AIRWASH), a dedicated outdoor air system (DOAS), and IDECOAS. It was found that DOAS and IDECOAS can reduce the annual cooling and heating coil loads by over 65.7% and 59.5%, respectively, compared with the VAV.

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This paper proposes strategies for reducing energy consumption for cooling in residences in hot and humid climates. Based on the results of fieldwork measurements and questionnaire surveys, a simulation of indoor thermal environments in consideration of air conditioner operation was carried out, in order to evaluate energy consumption by air conditioners. This simulation program takes into account both heat and moisture transfer in building materials. In order to simplify the calculation and due to lack of measurement of ventilation volumes, the ventilation volumes are assumed as constant values depending on open or closed windows. The combined effects of building air-tightness and the opening time of windows for ventilation were examined. Making an entire building airtight results in a small reduction in energy consumption, as the air-conditioned area increases. Meanwhile, simply making an air-conditioned room airtight is more effective for reducing cooling energy consumption. Irrespective of this, nighttime ventilation of non-air-conditioned spaces is quite effective in reducing sensible cooling load. Thus, introduction of not only a high degree of insulation but also air-tightness along with well controlled ventilation is required to achieve energy savings in hot and humid climates.

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