Typological study is deeply rooted in the view of seeing house types as a kind of spatial species that have grown out of the soil of building traditions within a given culture. There exist two major methodological challenges: how to construe a type and how to construe the evolution among family types? As opposed to previous studies on typological structures based on rule systems, this paper introduces a new research program directed towards typological evolution issues based on the idea of schema, and the embedded plan for layout arrangement, which may carry an important evolutionary message in its genesis program. Traditional Chinese house types in southeast China and Taiwan are chosen for this undertaking. Seven basic schemas are proposed and verified by their power to describe all cases under study. The paper is concluded with a few remarks on the methodological traits and follow-ups.

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Around 1930 the Modern Movement in Architecture had come of age in Europe. Suddenly, the architects of this movement realized that it had the potential to spread to the rest of the world and sought regions generally deprived of a firm sense of civil building procedures. To a certain extent, the tropics were one such area. Their authorities, mostly for want of social organization or techniques, welcomed the import of new industrial construction methods, seemingly efficient and unprejudiced, instead of inventing their own methods. However as modern materials had originated in temperate areas, their progress was hindered by the oppressiveness of the tropical climate. In this year–long investigation, the authors, through scientific design methods and computer simulation, would like to contribute to a careful examination of the systems conceived to overcome this major fault of modern architecture, and to provide solutions for the future. As the present study encompasses several different cultures, the case of the brise–soleil in South America will be discussed by first focusing on the figures of Le Corbusier and Lucio Costa.

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S. Giedion′s Space, Time and Architecture is a remarkable accomplishment in that it provides a theoretical basis of modern architecture. The book plays a very important role in helping us understand modern architecture, even though it was written in 1941. In this book, Giedion presents a definition of modern architecture as the realization of a new space concept, ″space-time.″ This is remarkable in that it tries to explain a change in the traditional notion of space; even more, it actually contains the notion of time in architecture. Giedion founded the new space concept; space-time in modern science, art and architecture on the basis of ″Zeitgeist.″ He tried to explain the concept, space-time in modern architecture, in two respects; simultaneity and movement. However, considering the fact that the characteristics of time and the method of expression in art and architecture are different, simultaneity and movement cannot be regarded as the same notion in art and architecture. Thus, his new space concept, space-time, should be reconsidered as an expression of a new concept of space derived from the concept of a dimensional evolution, not as an actual adaptation of time. Finally, further critical and analytical approaches to time in architecture should be followed for more concrete development of this critical concept in architecture.

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This paper analyzes the Territorial Occupation System used by the Spaniards during the colonial period on the island of Cuba. This system is based on the creation of circular areas: (Hato) with a ratio of 2 leagues, and (Corral) with a ratio of 1 league.
The study was accomplished in the following manner: 1) Study of the process of the Territorial Division of Cuba from the 15^th to 20^th century, 2) Analysis of the Hatos and Corrals using cartography of the AGI (The Archive of the Indies in Seville) and the creation of a database of the entirety of Hatos and Corrals in Cuba, 3) Study of several types, analyze the case of the county of La Havana, and their evolution until the present.
The system of Hatos and Corrals was only used on the island of Cuba. After four centuries they did not survive as territorial units, but have a direct influence on the current territorial divisions of municipalities and counties.

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This paper aims to present the rise and fall of the British Concession in Xiamen (the Amoy Bund) from 1852 to 1930. The paper points out similarities between bunds and traditional littoral space in Asian ports, and describes the conflicts and compromises in making a bund in minor treaty ports in China. Due to the establishment of foreigners′ land rights in modern China and the importation of western urban management in concessions and settlements, the bunds could be developed within the diverse contexts of the treaty ports. Their influence on Chinese cities was more than in determining an urban form, but also in providing contested spaces in which laissez-faire capitalism and self-government were mixed. This urban model was pursued by the Chinese government as a way to modernize cities in the early twentieth century.

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Due to the effect of impinging solar radiation, high thermal loads can be predicted in buildings in many climates of South-East Asia and thus components devised to protect and ventilate the facades have been known for centuries. Features such as the ″jalis″ or stone lattice work combined with deep overhangs and elements conceived to reflect excessive sunlight such as ritual ponds or even elaborate water tanks have adorned Indian-style palaces and temples since ancient times. These features have subsequently inspired modern architects like Le Corbusier, Antonin Raymond, Benjamin Polk and Geoffrey Bawa to cite just a few. Climatic control elements were well adapted to the craftsmanship of traditional architecture but their use as industrial products suitable for prefabrication is more controversial. Not only has the climate changed since the origin of Indian architecture, but also the use of glazing has increased in an alarming way and thus the need to protect openings is now even more demanding. In this paper, within the context of Indian civilization, the author will present the simulation of the radiative field generated by different types of solar protection and reflective surfaces, especially ponds and systems of louvres or brise-soleil. By virtue of this process it is intended to extrapolate the procedures used for ancient fabrics to their more modern counterparts found in internationally acclaimed buildings and to obtain useful design insights for future projects.

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This study aims to clarify the plan and use of common space in private rental apartments in Okinawa, Japan. The study covers the establishment of pilotis and non-pilotis style apartments by site area, the types of common spaces, and the use and evaluation of common spaces. To accomplish this, architectural drawings of 110 private rental apartments and a questionnaire sent to residents are fully analyzed. The results are as follows. First, the establishment of pilotis or non-pilotis style buildings is influenced by the site area and existence of exterior space. Pilotis style apartments without exterior space tend to be built on small sites. Next, common space is classified into four groups by building type and location of space: no common space (NCS), pilotis space only (PSO), shared pilotis space and exterior space (PSES) and exterior space only (ESO). Pilotis space is substituted for exterior space in non-pilotis style apartments and in common space shared pilotis space and exterior space, pilotis space supports exterior space functionally. Third, the main function of common space is for parking. Finally, according to the result of the evaluation of common space, PSO residents regard parking positively and the environment negatively, PSES residents regard parking neutrally and the environment positively, and ESO residents regard parking negatively and the environment neutrally.

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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the pluralistic cultural history, characteristics of the regional formation process, and the influences of a pluralistic culture on the Kume district of Naha city. Firstly, Okinawa′s pluralistic cultural background was introduced. Next, the formation process was analyzed on three levels: area, linear and spot. Then, focusing on Ryukyu, Chinese and Japanese traditional cultures, the influences of the cultures were analyzed as well. Finally, a conclusion was drawn as follows: There is an obvious connection between Ryukyu′s Utaki, Haisho¹, and the greenbelts and parks of today. Kume village was built based on the principles of Chinese Fengshui Philosophy. The area around Kume Street was once the central part of the district, and was preserved as its symbol on the original location. Also, Japanese Buddhism and Shinto beliefs lead to the construction of many temples and shrines in the study area. Future regional planning works in these locations should be carried out taking the aforementioned conclusions into consideration.

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A controller who is responsible for safety makes decisions concerning measures for visitor safety using a human-based decision-making process. Many potential accidents that could be caused by human error lurk in the process. These accidents can be reduced by changing from a human-based to technology based decision-making process. A technology-based decision-making process can draw a controller′s attention to trouble spots by data filtering, alarm filtering, and so on. The controller can thus obtain information on the occurrence of possible accidents proactively.
The objective of this study is to suggest a system for 3D human flow management using a technology-based decision-making process. The system is divided into two parts: a 3D spatial information system and a human motion detection system. The former is built from 3D CAD and a geographic information system, and the latter is developed from image processing. This study shows the direction of system development and the method of application, and describes the contribution of the system.

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Earned Value (EV) is a project control technique used in many countries which provides a quantitative measure for integrating on schedule and cost information. It also evaluates work progress in order to identify potential delay and cost overruns. South Korea had not used this concept until 2000, when the Korean government legislated that EV should be used in construction projects of more than 50 million dollars. In order to effectively implement EV in the Korean context, several reforms must be made regarding its unique conditions, such as the cost accounting system. This paper seeks to integrate cost as related to bill of quantity and schedule in a manner that is suitable for application in Korea. An example application of the proposed EV model to two actual separate projects is provided.

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This paper explores alternative infra(structure)-free (IF) scenarios at a community level to promote machi-zukuri (community/neighborhood planning), a bottom-up decentralization approach improving citizen′ and municipality involvement in city planning in Japan. Demographic analysis in Japan shows that the population is becoming more urbanized, with an increasingly centralized infrastructure, but that per capita waste generation is increasing because the number of people in each household is decreasing; therefore, integration of the energy, water and waste (EWW) cycles becomes more important. For residents who are unconnected to centralized sewage treatment in Japan, mainly concentrated in municipalities whose population is less than 100,000, there is a lack of alternatives for wastewater treatment, except the current technically-demanding ′joukasou′ on-site treatment system. The authors evaluated the 30-year life-cycle cost performance of three current systems with alternative (integrated-technology) IF scenarios focusing on wastewater treatment for a small community (20 households). These systems are; wastewater gardens with biogas production, an anaerobic digester gas system integrated with fuel cell technology and a heat and power unit (CHP) combined with a biogas-producing reed bed system, all of which treat wastewater and result in useful end products-, closing the life cycle with low maintenance, a lower environmental load-, and two to four times smaller development cost than centralized options in both rural and urban communities.

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Program management is important for the successful completion of construction projects. The Korean government has encountered many problems such as poor cooperation, limited trust, and ineffective communications, often resulting in adversarial relationships between stakeholders, and thus poor project implementation in terms of time, cost, and quality. Organizations such as the Associated General Contractors of America, the American Society of Civil Engineering, and the Army Corps of Engineers have championed partnering through educational programs, workshops, and training manuals. However, few studies have conducted an empirical investigation of the process. Our aim was to leverage advantages for the product line construction of a mega military construction project using dedicated partnering based on a program management consortium (PMC) model and to implement an ongoing feedback program of best practice/lessons learned to minimize the mistakes made in sequenced construction. We discuss key developmental aspects of the United States Forces and a Korean relocation program management consortium. Our findings will benefit in the performance of the United States Forces, Korean relocation program management, and other large government-run public or private consortium-funded projects. They will also aid in the identification of new and creative ways to solve issues associated with the establishment of program management consortiums.

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An urban design which reduces snow problems is one of the most important approaches in heavy snow and cold climate cities. In this paper, the author evaluated the urban design for the new Wakkanai Station redevelopment project in Hokkaido, Japan. Wakkanai City is the northernmost city of Japan, and is located in a strong snowstorm area. Two types of station design, the Trapezoid type and the Curved-surface type were tested in snow simulations using a wind tunnel that belongs to the Hokkaido Northern Regional Building Research Institute.
Comparing the two types of Wakkanai Station redevelopment design, the Curved-surface design is better suited to alleviate the negative impact of snowdrifts on the pedestrian pathway. The formation of snowdrifts in the public areas will be less likely to occur due to obstructions, and there will be better access for passenger transfer and better approach for public transportation and private vehicles. But some provision for the shelter of pedestrians from strong wind should be included in the redevelopment plan.
The results of this simulation will be reflected in the station redevelopment planning and design of this project. This urban design study with snow simulations might provide the most progressive approach.

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Roof construction is one of the most important building construction issues in relation to wind and rain. Government policy dictates that most new buildings have flat roofs, but many conventional existing ones have pitched roofs. These are the subjects of this study. The authors′ research focuses on the following four items.
1) Conventional construction systems for pitched roof systems that reflect supply conditions in each area.
University and technical college textbooks on building construction and literature on traditional building construction were collected and compiled. The authors also visited construction sites and surveyed students in each area to obtain relevant information.
2) Climate data on wind velocity, especially combined with rainfall, and the probability of simultaneous occurrence.
3) Distribution factors regarding wind pressure on roof surfaces with eaves and rakes that happened during wind.
4) Reinforcing methods considering wind with rain for existing construction systems.
As the first step, this paper outlines pitched roof systems in Eastern Asia.

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Urban expansion in China has led to rapid urbanization occupying a huge amount of cultivated land, and in turn, to adverse effects on city environments. By collecting data from 30 big cities in China, including the 4 biggest municipalities and 26 provincial government cities, this paper analyzes the current status of urbanization and identifies the land use changes as determined by a geographic information system (GIS) analysis. It also examines the relationships between urbanization level, the economy and environmental status, by applying a regression model. Finally, the paper proposes a perspective for promoting sound urbanization under the Circular Economy (CE) in China. The authors determined that 14,996 km² of cultivated land have been converted into urban built-up areas in China between 1990 and 2000. Above all, the changes in the three megalopolises of the Yangtze River Delta, Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei and the Pearl River Delta were substantial and the land use efficiencies of these areas are higher than in the other areas. The authors also found that urbanization is positively associated with per capita GDP. The regression analysis for per capita solid waste indicated an inverted-U shape relationship with urbanization.

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This research aims to investigate the current condition regarding ventilation use in congested urban areas of Taiwan. There is a remarkably high level of humidity and dense populations in many housing areas. The study targeted terraced houses, which are the most common style of housing in urban Taiwan. The current study attempted to understand the thermal environments of residential buildings as well as utilization of the cross-ventilation system. This was achieved by combining data of the current weather conditions and a questionnaire survey of those tested. Also included in the testing was a series of wind tunnel experiments conducted to examine the issues related to the ventilation flow rates of these congested areas. Following that testing, ventilation improvement techniques were proposed and studied for ways to decrease the negative environmental impact from over-use of air conditioners. The results calculated by simulation software demonstrated that through the use of our roof top designed component for air circulation, the heat removal decreased by 16% annually, compared to current condition.

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Existing prediction tools of indoor environment such as Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and multizone models each have their advantages but also their limitations. Therefore combining the two models could avoid their respective drawbacks and improve the accuracy of prediction of indoor air quality. This paper presents a coupling method which uses pressure differences output from a multizone model to link with CFD. The method is then applied to an example case with air infiltration and exfiltration, an open door, ventilation and a contaminant source. The outlined method models both small openings and large ones such as doors and windows and will be useful in the conception and design of advanced ventilation systems for residential and small office buildings at an improved accuracy with less computational burden.

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As rapid increase in energy consumption has raised concerns among researchers regarding the use of conventional air-conditioning systems, substantial effort has been devoted to the exploration of alternative solutions. One possible solution is a natural ventilation approach. In the present study, the authors have focused on the feasibility of cross-ventilation due to natural ventilation potential. The study centered on cases located in the Guangzhou and Shenzhen areas on the Pacific coast of China, well known for their dense population and high-energy consumption. In the current research, the analysis of weather data to investigate the feasibility of cross-ventilation in Guangzhou and Shenzhen was initially performed. A questionnaire survey was then carried out in order to grasp the residences′ actual configurations and conditions. Sequentially, based on the results obtained from the prior investigations, the existing problems were raised and solutions for cross-ventilation enhancement were tested by means of a wind tunnel experiment. It can be concluded that the presence of VOID (vertical opening common space) without an opening on the lower part of the buildings significantly improves the cross-ventilation flow rate by 1.3-2 times over the cases without VOID.

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China has become the second largest emitter of CO₂ in the world. As one of the largest energy consumers, urban residential buildings are required to reduce energy consumption. However nearly all existing urban residential buildings in the Hot Summer and Cold Winter Region of China were built with poor thermal quality. Increasing a building′s energy performance has proven to be very helpful in alleviating the pressure of energy shortages and in reducing CO₂ emissions. After analyzing the climate of the region, the economic development and existing urban residential buildings of Hangzhou city, one typical building is selected as a case study. Six rational renovation plans, based upon the national and regional standards, are advanced after analyzing their feasibility in simulations and in practice. The energy saving effects of the plans are analyzed using the feedback coefficient method, the reduction of CO₂ emissions by a simple LCCO₂ method and the costs by a simple LCC method, all for a 40-year residual life span. Based upon these results a suitable plan is developed. The results show that the renovation of existing residential buildings, through the thermal insulation of their building envelopes, is very beneficial in reducing energy consumption and CO₂ emissions.

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