In recent years, item response theory (IRT) has been used by many researchers who study organizational behavior. The objectives of this paper are to make overview of the principles of the theory and to discuss its applicability for measuring organizational behavior.
The emphasis is addressed on the promising feature of the theory rather than comparison of advantages and disadvantages with classical test theory. Practical procedures for selecting models, estimating parameters, and developing items are also discussed.

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A field experiment investigated the effects of training on Japanese managers' attitudes toward divergent thinking. An experimental group (n=60) of managers underwent practice- oriented experiential training in creative problem solving. Two control groups underwent placebo treatments. The first (n=15) was comprised of Japanese university faculty and graduate students who participated in an abstract discussion. The second (n=47) was comprised of Japanese assistant managers who experienced training in an unrelated subject. The three groups were measured before and after training on attitudes toward two aspects of divergent thinking: active divergence and premature convergence. The experimental group showed significant gains on both measures versus both placebo control groups. Compared to North American managers from similar studies, the Japanese managers appear to be at least equal on both attitudes in mean score and in gains made after training. This research indicates that applicability and receptivity of paradigms and methods of training in creativity and innovation may be at least as strong in Japanese business and industry as in North America. Also the Japanese translations of the two measures developed and used for the first time in this study appear to be good replicas of the English language versions. Some interesting differences between the two attitudes in gains after training and between the groups before training are identified as opportunities for future research. Potential mediators include Japanese cultural factors, profit versus non-profit organizational contexts, and different levels of responsibility.

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Under the rapid change of the socio-economic environment, the cooperative associations of the medium and small scale enterprises stand at a turning point of the business activities and organizations. The activation of the cooperative organization is the matter of urgency.
In 1988, we surveyed the current conditions of the business, organization, and management of the 3277 cooperative business associations in Kinki. The data from 1406 cooperatives were gathered, and analyses were made on the relationship among the organizational factors and the level of activation. Analytical results show that strategy formulation of the association, integrative organizational climate among the medium and amall scale enterprises, and loosely coupled linkage with other organizations are the necessary conditions to activate the cooperative organization.

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A replication study was conducted to confirm the fundamental structures of interdependence among factors in determining the span of management which were obtained by the authors. Thus the same questionnaires as those used in that study were employed in this study. The questionnaires consisted of 55 items which represented empirical factors in determining the span of management including: two dependent variables using four items on group performance and human relations, and five intervening variables using 51 items. Data were collected for employees at three organizational levels from a manufacturing firm of large (about 3.6 thousand) sizes. To confirm the fundamental structures, factor analysis and multiple regression analysis were performed. Factor analysis and Procrustes rotations of the varimax factor patterns for the 51 items provided evidence of tendencies in the invariance of five-factor structure regardless of organizational levels and company difference as well as of organizational differences in each factor. On the other hand, multiple regression analysis indicated that the relationship among the extracted factors and the four items on group performance and human relations which represented empirical factors in determining the span of management depends upon situations under which job units existed.

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Based on the hierarchical principal component analysis techinigue, a set of data involving evaluative ratings (5-point scale) on 10 most advanced scientific technologies were analysed, for the purpose of identifying basic as well as specific evaluative dimensions associated with these advanced technologies. A data set for the present analysis maintained a structure to conform the three-mode factor anaysis: subjects rated by using the same set of scales 10 different technologies (i. e., artificial intelligence, bio-technology, nuclear power generation, space technology, linear motor car, tube baby, 5th generation computer, super conductivity, organ transplant, and high-speed reactor). A series of conventional factor analyses (principal axes followed by Varimax rotation) and a present hierarchical component analysis as well produced basically the same image structure on advanced technologies. For basic common dimensions, three factors namely useful and development, dagerous and harmful, and personally beneficial were identified, while another three factors were derived to represent specific dimensions unique to each technology.

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Impact of CI (Corporate Identity) building activities upon employees' attitudes toward their organization was examined from an organizational communication point of view. First, a degree of employee exposure to the company's CI media and an attitude (favorable-unfavorable) toward CI activities were measured. Then, subjects were classified into three groups in terms of their felt favorableness to the CI. A series of analyses were conducted to see how these groups differ in terms of their attitudes to and perceptions on their organizations. As hypothesized, results of the analysis indicated that the CI-supportive group tended to show a higher exposure to the CI-related information, better corporate images, higher evaluation of corporate performance, and stronger support of company's communication efforts directed toward both customers and employees.

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Based on data derived from interviews with directors and plant managers working for Japanese transplants (6 firms) in the American Mid West area, an unique set of HRD strategies that the Japanese manufacturers in the U. S. follow were identified, covering such practices as recruitment and selection, employment security, training and placement, pay and promotion, participation, equal treatment and so forth. Three strategically important areas for the successful HRD were found:(1) transfer of work-related skills and values, (2) internal development of skilled employees and team leaders, and (3) creation of the third (hybrid) work culture unique to each transplant.
To facilitate a transfer of skills and values from Japan to the U. S. exchanges of key employees were undertaken: providing OJT to the U. S. workers in Japanese plants followed by the Japanese-American joint operation back in the U. S. new plant. This initially trained core group was found playing an innovator function to the late comers who were mostly young and unskilled.
Among skilled and senior employees, team leaders were carefully evaluated and selected over a long period of time. Team leaders (including sub-leaders) symbobized successful implementation of ideas concerning internal HRD, job security, and team work pronounced by the Japanese transplants. Finally, for the purpose of creating unique work culture of their own, Japanese transplants in common intensively engaged in facilitating horizontal as well as vertical commumication, egalitarian treatments, participation programs, and social and leisure activities. These integrative measures seemed key catalyst in developing organizational effectiveness through HRD efforts.

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