Legal History Review

In the Ching Dynasty, the "guards" system (_??_ Ai) was established throughout the middle, northern and northeastern parts of Taiwan. It was aimed at protecting the Chinese and the sinicized aborigines from being disturbed or attacked by the wild aborigines, while they were engaged in exploiting the land in these areas. The "guards" were usually classified as "official guards" and "civil guards". There were only a few official guards, although the civil guards were of a great number. The official guards were subdivided into two different classes. Under one class the guards expenditure was financed wholly by the government; and under the other class, the government only assumed four-tenths of its expenditure and the rest were shared by the landlords and the tenants domiciled within the border of the "guards". Next, the "civil guards" were also subdivided into two classes : "public guards" and "private guards". The public guards were financed by the landlords or lessors (_??__??__??_ Ta-tsu-hu) and the long-lease tenants (_??__??__??_ Hsiao-tsu-hu) both inhabiting the local community which usually composed of one or several villages, in proportion to size of the land they owned and exploited. The "private guards" or the so-called "manorial guards", being built by the manorial landowner, were devised to safeguard the exploitation of their lands. The manorial tenants (_??__??__??_ Untereigentümer), under the long-lease from the manorial landowner (_??__??_ Obereigentümer), payed the rent (_??__??_ Zins) to the latter for the possession of their lands.

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Ho-hou _??__??_ is a kind of partnership which is usually based upon joint ownership of properties (Eigentum zur gesamten Hand). This form of partnership was used frequently, when two or more partners established an enterprise to undertake commerce, manufacturing industry, agriculture, forestry or fishing.
Prototypes of ho-huo can be traced back at least to the Sung dynasty. But its classical form was completed under the Ming dynasty.
The classical form involves two or more merchants, handicraftsmen or farmers in a joint enterprise, who invest equal sums and share the work pertaining to the operation of the enterprise. The members are liable unlimitedly.
This form represents the first stage in the process of transition from personal management of enterprises in the feudal age to the capitalistic form of enterprises. Its historical role was to institutionalize capital accumulation and social division of labor in an enterprise. In Italy, similar developments were observed in the formation of societas. Ho-huo represents a form of enterprise in the stage of the small-scale commodity production in the historical development of economy.
Under the Ching dynasty, which succeeded Ming, the classical form of ho-huo remained to be the principal form. But the number of the members was on the increase and ho-huo was thus quantitatively enlarged.
As for historical data concerning ho-huo, many examples are found in court records and official documents, while several specimens of ho-huo contract were discovered by Dr. Noboru Niida in a vade mecum of the Ming period.

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La féodalité en France au moyen âge se pent diviser en deux époques distinctes: le premier âge féodal (du IXe à la première moitié du Xe siècle) et le deuxième (de la seconde moitié du Xe à la première moitié du XIIe siècle). L'indépendance du comte au roi caractérise le premier qui pourtant n'a pas encore generalisé la féodalisation dans le comté, dont l'ordre public se maintenait par le comte et ses fonctionnaires en dépit de 1'existance de beaucoup des immunistes n'ayant qu'à son tour le pouvoir de juridiction inférieure (des causale minores) comme un privilège fiscal. Féodalisation complète, c'est-à-dire celle jusque dans le comté est de 2e âge féodal. Ici, it n'y avait dans la société politique autre ordre des pouvoirs que de la féodalité, du lien vassalique dont 1'élément fondamentale était la châtellenie, unité de pouvoir indépendant aussi bien que de territoire. Le chatelain aurait derivré pour la plupart de fonctionnaire ou de vassal du comte (vicecomes, vicarius, miles, advocatus, etc.) qui s'était approprié le château comtal à son aise profitant de l'anarchie, le désagrégation de pouvoir public. Le seul gardien de la paix dans toute sa châtellenie, it exercait la justice de sang à cause de son pouvoir militaire qui se bien fondait sur son château, et it devient un des souches de la noblesse héréditaire de condition juridique en France médiévale. Il était en d'autre part un seigneur banal, faisant ses sujets de tous les paysans qui habitaient et cultivaient dans sa châtellenie.
L'installation de la châtellenie aurait requis deux causes motrices : d'abord, la régression de la pouvoir de seigneur foncier d'ordinaire conformément à la dissolution du régime domanial qui s'est commencée à partir du IXe siècle, devenue décisive an XIe siècle ; ensuite, le renouveau commercial, beaucoup plus avantageux au châtelain qu'au seigneur foncier, car le paix dans un certain territoire était indispensable à la circulation et la transaction des marchandises.
La châtellenie était -done une cellule de la féodalité en sa fleuraison et aussi une prémisse logique et historique de 1'établissement de pouvoir capétien dans le domaine royal au XIIIe siècle.

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The main contents of Seikyuki are the description of both the regular and the extraordinary court-ceremonies which took place during the tenure of office of Minister of The Left (_??__??__??_) Minamoto-no-Takaakira in comparison with court precedents. Most of the ceremonies described are routine annual events.
In the period characterized by the system of the basic codes of Ritsu and Ryo (_??__??_) in legal history, annual events and ceremonies were subject to regulation by Shiki (_??_), which was an ordinance to implement Ritsu and Ryo. Seikyuki, therefore, has its historical significance as a document to reveal the extent of actual binding force of Konin-shiki (_??__??__??_) and Jogan-shiki (_??__??__??_) and also of Engi-shiki (_??__??__??_) in the periods before and after 967 A. D., the year of enforcement of Engi-shiki.
In the political thinking of that time, precedents should always be respected to the utmost and, as a result, the written law was sometimes compromised. Furthermore, the Onmyo (_??__??_) superstition and the fear of pollution as a taboo were prevalent, hampering practical execution of legal duties. Seikyuki gives us a realistic picture of a society so much steeped in superstition and blind submission to precedents.
This book as literature belongs to the category of diaries written by court nobles of the Heian period.

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