Reactive oxygen species (ROS) induce neuronal cell death in a time- and concentration-dependent manner. Treatment of cultured cells with a low concentration of hydrogen peroxide induces neurite degeneration, but not cell death. Neurites (axons and dendrites) are vulnerable to ROS. Neurite degeneration (shrinkage, accumulation, and fragmentation) has been found in neurodegenerative disorders, such as Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, and Huntington’s disease. However, the mechanism of ROS-related neurite degeneration is not fully understood. Many studies have demonstrated the relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and microtubule destabilization. These dysfunctions are deeply related to changes in calcium homeostasis and ROS production in neurites. Treatment with antioxidant substances, such as vitamin E, prevents neurite degeneration in cultured cells. This review describes the possibility that ROS induces neurite degeneration before the induction of cell death.

The aim of this experiment is to measure in vivo generation of melanin-derived radicals non-invasively, as a quantifiable index of radio-biological effect. Melanin-derived radicals in a living intact mouse tail tip were non-invasively measured in very simple way using an X-band electron paramagnetic resonance spectrometer. Colored mouse strains, C57BL/6NCr, BDF1, and C3H/He, have clear EPR signal corresponding to melanin-derived radicals in the tail tip; however, albino mouse strains, BALB/cCr, ddY, ICR, have no EPR signals. An X-ray fraction of 2 Gy/day (1 Gy/min) was repeatedly irradiated to a C3H/He mouse tail skin every Monday to Friday for 4 weeks. In comparison to before starting irradiation, the C3H/He mouse tail skin became darker, like a suntan. The melanin-derived radicals in C3H/He mouse tail skin were increased in association with X-ray fractions. Melanin-derived radicals in mouse tail skin can be readily and chronologically measurable by using X-band EPR spectrometer, and can be a marker for a radiobiological effect in the skin.

Antioxidant treatments have been expected to be a novel therapeutics for various oxidative stress-mediated disorders. Our previous study revealed that 5-hydroxyoxindole and its 3-phenacyl-3-hydroxy derivatives showed excellent antioxidant activities such as 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity and lipid-peroxidation inhibitory activity. However, the DPPH radical scavenging activity of the 3,3-disubstituted derivatives was lower than that of the original 5-hydroxyoxindole. In the present study, we synthesized novel 3-monosubstituted 5-hydroxyoxindole derivatives that exhibited stronger DPPH radical scavenging activities and lipid peroxidation-inhibitory activities than the 3,3-disubstituted 5-hydroxyoxindoles. Moreover, the 3-monosubstituted 5-hydroxyoxindole derivatives showed neither an iron-mediated pro-oxidant effect nor a remarkable cytotoxicity against HL-60 cell lines except some of the highly lipophilic compounds. These results indicate that 3-monosubstituted 5-hydroxyoxindoles can be used as a promising antioxidant scaffold for drug discovery.

Extracellular-superoxide dismutase (genetic name SOD3) is a secreted anti-oxidative enzyme, and its presence in vascular walls may play an important role in protecting the vascular system against oxidative stress. Oxidative stress has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy; therefore, increases in extracellular-superoxide dismutase have been suggested to inhibit the progression of diabetic retinopathy. Incretin-based drugs such as glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists are used in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists are expected to function as extrapancreatic agents because the glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor is expressed not only in pancreatic tissues, but also in many other tissue types. We herein demonstrated that exendin-4, a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonist, induced the expression of extracellular-superoxide dismutase in human retinal microvascular endothelial cells through epigenetic regulation. The results of the present study demonstrated that exendin-4 induced the expression of extracellular-superoxide dismutase through histone H3 acetylation at the SOD3 proximal promoter region. Moreover, plasma extracellular-superoxide dismutase concentrations in diabetic patients were elevated by incretin-based therapies. Therefore, incretin-based therapies may exert direct extrapancreatic effects in order to protect blood vessels by enhancing anti-oxidative activity.

Methylmercury induces oxidative stress and subsequent neuronal injury. However, the mechanism by which methylmercury elicits reactive oxygen species (ROS) production remains under debate. In this study, we investigated the involvement of mitochondrial ROS in methylmercury-induced neuronal cell injury using human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y-derived ρ⁰ cells, which have a deletion of mitochondrial DNA and thus decreased respiratory activity. SH-SY5Y cells were cultured for 60 days in the presence of ethidium bromide to produce ρ⁰ cells. Our ρ⁰ cells showed decreases in the cytochrome c oxidase expression and activity as well as oxygen consumption compared with original SH-SY5Y cells. Methylmercury at a concentration of 1 µM induced cell death with oxidative stress in original SH-SY5Y cells, but not ρ⁰ cells, indicating that ρ⁰ cells are resistant to methylmercury-induced oxidative stress. ρ⁰ cells also showed tolerance against hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion, suggesting that ρ⁰ cells are resistant to total ROS. These data indicate that mitochondrial ROS are clearly involved in oxidative stress and subsequent cell death induced by methylmercury. Considering that the dominant mechanism of ROS generation elicited by methylmercury is due to direct antioxidant enzyme inhibition, mitochondria might play a role in amplifying ROS in methylmercury-induced neurotoxicity.

Strawberries can augment plasma antioxidant activity, but this may be confounded by selection of methods, time of blood sampling and concomitant dietary restrictions. We examined the effect of strawberry consumption on ferric reducing ability (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity (DPPH-test) of native and non-urate plasma in healthy subjects on their usual diet. Eleven subjects consumed strawberries (500 g daily) for 9 days. Fasting and 3-h postprandial plasma and 24-h urine collection were obtained before, during and after strawberry course for FRAP, DPPH-test and polyphenols determination. Fifteen subjects served as a control in respect to plasma antioxidant activity changes and effect of 300 mg of oral ascorbate. First, 5th and 9th strawberry dose increased 3-h postprandial DPPH-test by 17.4, 17.6 and 12.6%, and FRAP by 15.5, 25.6 and 21.4% in comparison to fasting values in non-urate plasma (p<0.05). In native plasma only a trend was observed to higher postprandial values for both tests. Strawberries increased urinary urolithin A and 4-hydroxyhippuric acid whereas plasma polyphenols were stable. No changes of FRAP and DPPH-test were noted in controls and after ascorbate intake. Strawberries transiently increased non-urate plasma antioxidant activity but this cannot be attributed to direct antioxidant effect of polyphenols and ascorbate.

Insulin resistance occurs frequently in patients with chronic kidney disease. However, the mechanisms of insulin resistance associated with chronic kidney disease are unclear. It is known that an increase in the mitochondrial acetyl-CoA (AcCoA)/CoA ratio causes insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, and this ratio is regulated by carnitine acetyltransferase that exchanges acetyl moiety between CoA and carnitine. Because excess acetyl moiety of AcCoA is excreted in urine as acetylcarnitine, we hypothesized that retention of acetylcarnitine might be a cause of insulin resistance in chronic kidney disease patients. Serum acetylcarnitine concentrations were measured in chronic kidney disease patients, and were significantly increased with reduction of renal function. The effects of excess extracellular acetylcarnitine on insulin resistance were studied in cultured skeletal muscle cells (C2C12 and human myotubes), and insulin-dependent glucose uptake was significantly and dose-dependently inhibited by addition of acetylcarnitine. The added acetylcarnitine was converted to carnitine via reverse carnitine acetyltransferase reaction, and thus the AcCoA concentration and AcCoA/CoA ratio in mitochondria were significantly elevated. The results suggest that increased serum acetylcarnitine in CKD patients causes AcCoA accumulation in mitochondria by stimulating reverse carnitine acetyltransferase reaction, which leads to insulin resistance in skeletal muscle.

The induction of beige adipogenesis within white adipose tissue, known as “browning”, has received attention as a novel potential anti-obesity strategy. The expression of some characteristic genes including PR domain containing 16 is induced during the browning process. Although acetate has been reported to suppress weight gain in both rodents and humans, its potential effects on beige adipogenesis in white adipose tissue have not been fully characterized. We examined the effects of acetate treatment on 3T3-L1 cells and in obese diabetic KK-Ay mice. The mRNA expression levels of genes involved in beige adipocyte differentiation and genes selectively expressed in beige adipocytes were significantly elevated in both 3T3-L1 cells incubated with 1.0 mM acetate and the visceral white adipose tissue from mice treated with 0.6% acetate for 16 weeks. In KK-Ay mice, acetate reduced the food efficiency ratio and increased the whole-body oxygen consumption rate. Additionally, reduction of adipocyte size and uncoupling protein 1-positive adipocytes and interstitial areas with multilocular adipocytes appeared in the visceral white adipose tissue of acetate-treated mice, suggesting that acetate induced initial changes of “browning”. In conclusion, acetate alters the expression of genes involved in beige adipogenesis and might represent a potential therapeutic agent to combat obesity.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a multifactorial disease that involves a complex interaction between genetics, diet, and lifestyle, all of which combine to form the NAFLD phenotype. In Japan, medical nutrition therapy for NAFLD has not yet been established, so NAFLD patients are instructed in the dietary modifications used for type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Because points of difference may exist in the effects of dietary choices on NAFLD and T2DM, the present study aimed to compare and assess the dietary intake of Japanese individuals with NAFLD and T2DM. This cross-sectional study involved 219 patients (77 NAFLD subjects; 33 males, 44 females; 142 T2DM subjects: 76 males, 66 females) aged 40–79 years. Dietary intake was assessed using a validated self-administered diet history questionnaire. Among the results, the most notable in NAFLD patients relative to T2DM patients were: 1) the low intake of vegetables that can reduce the overall energy density; 2) the high consumption of fruits and confectionery containing simple carbohydrates such as fructose; and 3) BMI may be higher. We demonstrated differences in dietary selection between the two groups. NAFLD patients were more likely to have dietary habits that promote fat accumulation in the body.

Consumption of olives (Olea europaea L.) is associated with a low incidence of inflammation-related diseases. Olive fruit is rich in bioactive pentacyclic triterpenoids, mainly maslinic acid. This study, a randomized, double-blind, and placebo-controlled trial, examined the effects of an orally administered maslinic acid supplement, olive fruit extract, on 20 middle-aged and elderly volunteers with mild knee joint pain. Each subject (58 ± 7 years) received either olive fruit extract, containing 50 mg maslinic acid (n = 12), or placebo (n = 8) daily for 12 weeks and evaluated for pain and physical functions as primary outcome measures. Secondary outcome measures included body composition and inflammatory biomarkers in serum. Although both groups exhibited improved pain visual analogue scale score and quality of life after supplementation, symptoms were better in the maslinic acid group than in the placebo group. After 12 weeks, maslinic acid group exhibited significant decrease in body weight and body mass index suggesting that maslinic acid affected the weight of volunteers with mild knee joint pain. Therefore, olive products containing maslinic acid may be useful as a new preventive and therapeutic food ingredient for arthritic diseases. Since this clinical study is a preliminary study, it was not registered in a publicly accessible database.

Gastric cancers are sometimes diagnosed in patients who have successfully undergone Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) eradication. We analyzed the clinicopathological features of gastric cancers detected after eradication to clarify their characteristics. We reviewed 31 patients with 34 cases of gastric cancer detected after successful H. pylori eradication. Clinicopathological characteristics analyzed included interval since eradication, interval since last endoscopy, tumor size, and depth of invasion. Patients were classified into two groups: early detection (<1 year since eradication) and delayed detection (≥1 year since eradication). The interval since last endoscopy was significantly shorter in the early detection group than in the delayed detection group. However, gastric cancers were significantly larger and more invasive in the early detection group than in the delayed detection group. In conclusion, diligent endoscopy is necessary during the first year after successful H. pylori eradication. (The University Hospital Medical Information Network clinical trial registration number is UMIN000018541.)

Small intestinal mucosal injury caused by low-dose aspirin is a common cause of obscure gastrointestinal bleeding. We aimed to investigate the protective effects and optimal dose of rebamipide for low-dose aspirin-induced gastrointestinal mucosal injury. In this prospective randomized trial, 45 healthy volunteers (aged 20–65 years) were included and divided into three groups. The groups received enteric-coated aspirin 100 mg (low-dose aspirin) plus omeprazole 10 mg (Group A: proton pump inhibitor group), low-dose aspirin plus rebamipide 300 mg (Group B: standard-dose group), or low-dose aspirin plus rebamipide 900 mg (Group C: high-dose group). Esophagogastroduodenoscopy and video capsule endoscopy were performed, and the fecal occult blood reaction and fecal calprotectin levels were measured before and two weeks after drug administration. Although the fecal calprotectin levels increased significantly in Group A, they did not increase in Groups B and C. The esophagogastroduodenoscopic and video capsule endoscopic findings and the fecal occult blood test findings did not differ significantly among the three groups. In conclusion, standard-dose rebamipide is sufficient for preventing mucosal injury of the small intestine induced by low-dose aspirin, indicating that high-dose rebamipide is not necessary.