After World War II, a drastic reform of the educational system was carried out in Japan and the American system of a board of education was introduced for the first time. Later, in 1956, the Law on the Board of Education was abolished and the new Law on the Organization and Operation of Local Educational Administration was enacted. Three basic principles of the educational administration system were then weakened-its democracy, decentralization, and independence. In this paper, the historical changes in educational administration during the 40 years from that time to nowadays are described roughly through the three periods: (1) Showa 30s/1955-64, (2) Showa 40s-50s/1965-84, and (3) Showa 60s-Heisei 8/1985-96. The first period is a time when policies and actions were adopted and promoted mainly to "normalize" what was called the confused and "ideologically prejudiced education" after the war by the conservatives. The second is a time when various conditions (both exteria and interia) of education were arranged and expanded under the initiative, leadership and auspices of the central government. Consequently, educational administration was gradually centralized or concentrated while local education and schools were paralyzed, thus producing various problems. The third era has been a time when proposals to reform such problems were again made by a newly formed advisory commission named the "Temporary Commission on Education," with subsequent actions then being taken. The Japanese Liberal Democratic Party, however, which continued to win overwhelming majorities in the Diet from its formation in 1955, lost its majority and the reigns of government at the beginning of Heisei Era (in 1994). Political power has thus been pluralized with political circles constantly in flux. Though the reforms of education have been promoted along the fundamental design of the Temporary Commission of Education, the prospect of the future state of local educational administration is very opaque, particularly as the distribution of parties in Diet will likely change greatly in the next general election. In any case, it is necessary, to promote the decentralization of educational administration more strongly, especially concerning the establishment of the Do Shu Sei (the general system of larger and stronger municipalities being above the existing prefectures) and to set up such governing boards of schools composed of representatives of parents, teachers, citizens, etc. as is seen in many countries today.

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After World War II, the education in Japan started with the acceptance of the Potsdam Proclamation. We can therefore say that the formation of democratic education was done by force. That educational reform should, however, have been considered as being spontaneously welcomed by the people. A psychological need to erase the meaning of the word 'by force' has changed the usage of the expression 'defeat in the war' into that of 'end of the war.' As the misgovernment under the occupation of Prime Minister Shigeru Yoshida caused profitless oppositions among the people's thought on the interpretation of the war, the educational system has become complicated. Furthermore, theoretical oppositions concerning socialism have brought the state of matters into further confusion. Such being the case, we can say that the education in post-war Japan couldn't maintain a universal validity and was thus undertaken with various defects. Only economics has prospered, to an unprecedented level, which has brought about the fashion of consumption among the people. Indeed that economical development enlarged human abilities, but it is also true that it caused new and serious problems in the educational system. The present system of the Board of Education which was reformed in the face of political opposition in 1956 has played a large part in the stability on the educational administration. But now, when the cause of this opposition has gone and new problems of education have appeared, it is very doubtful that the present system of the Board of Education is profitable for the positive educational administration. We can propose that the Superintendent of the Board should be reformed into the head of the executive power of education, for example, like that of the Korean system of the Board of Education.

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In this paper, I will explain about the outline of Educational Administration in our country from a view point of decentralization or local autonomy. Points of my consideration are the following five. 1. Constitutional foundation of decentralization of educational administration. The Articles 92, 93, 94 and 95 are the fundamental provisions concerning Local Self Government, and these provisions are also constitutional ground of decentralization of educational administration. 2. The spirit of Article 10 of The Fundamental Law of Education. The Article 10 of The Fundamental Law of Education is the following: School Administration Education shall not be subject to improper control, but it shall be directly responsible to the whole people. School administration shall, on the basis of this realization, aim at the adjustment and establishment of the various conditions required for the pursuit of the aim of education. This is the most fundamental provision concerning educational administration in our country. And the spirit of this provision includes decentralizationship to some or certain degree. 3. Centralizing of educational administration by enacting The Law Concerning the Organization and Functions of Local Educational Administration. In 1956, The Law Concerning the Organization and Functions of LEA was enacted and centralization was designed concerning the main matters. For example, (1) The Minister of Education, Science and Culture was authorized to demand the amendments of illegal or improper situations of local-prefectural and municipal-school education, (2) The Minister was authorized to recognize or reject the prefectural superintendent candidate. 4. An attempt of enacting and enforcing The By-law concerning Inhabitant Ballot for the choice of candidates of board members of NAKANO-Ku(ward). On 25, May, 1979, The By-law concerning Inhabitant Ballot for the choice of candidates of board members of NAKANO-Ku in Tokyo was promulgated.This attempt has attracted a great deal of educational attention. But in January 1995, The By-law was abolished and this fact indeed showed the difficulty of creative attempt for local self-government body in JAPAN. 5. The Decentralization Promotion Law and prospect of decentralization of educational administration. In 1995, The Decentralization Promotion Law was enacted. According to the spirit of this law, the relation of central and local government, exactly, the legal and functional relation of the Ministry of Education and board of education should be reconsidered.

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The aim of this paper is to investigate recent debates and issues of reform about the "Professionalization" of educational administration. There is a certain tendency to emphasize professionalization and independence of educational administration differently from general administration among the people engaged in education. The intention of emphasizing this difference is to distinguish the character of educational administration from general administration and maintain the autonomy of educational administration. This paper insists that it is not reasonable and realistic to over-emphasize such professionalization and independence of educational administration in the current situation of general administration in Japan - for example, to get all employees in the board of education, including superintendents, certificated and so on because advanced professionalization and independence of educational administration would make the relation between boards of education and schools more bureaucratic and break unifying policies in local government with a centralization between the Ministry of Education and the local board of education. The main difference distinguishing educational administration from general administration is the existance of schools. There is a principle that management of teachers and schools based on the system of teachers' certification should be done by professional autonomy and advice, not under the authoritative supervision of the board of education. This is the reason why many people engaged in education emphasize and ask for professionalization and the independence of educational administration. This paper insists, though, that the function of schools shouldn't be enlarged to a level of an administration but be performed fully at the level of schools because advanced professionalization of educational administration would make the relation between the board of education and schools more bureaucratic and weaken the responsibility of schools to parents and communities. It is better that the tense relations between educational administration and general administration should be mediated by conceding more professional autonomy of the curriculum and personnel and budget to schools. It is a point that we should learn from school-reforms called "school-based management" and "collaborative management" from other advanced countries like the U.S. and the U.K.

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In this paper, I examine supervisory functions and work of supervisors in boards of education through the analysis of some surveys. The survey is concerned with the work of supervisors in the three levels of boards of education in Kyoto and Osaka prefectures. I gained some findings from this survey as follows; 1 The work of supervisors depends on the characteristics of their organizations, the head office of the prefectural board of education, its branch offices and offices of the local boards of education. 2 The supervisory function of each office depends on the structure of supervisory administration, the size of offices of the local board of education, and the relations among each office. 3 Office work related to supervision occupies around 70 percent among all kinds of their work. On the contrary direct supervision on subject and teachers' activities occupies only a small part. 4 There are some differences of characteristics between office work related to supervision and ordinary office work. I submit two ideas on the reform of supervisory administration from the above findings; 1 It should be made clear what functions are done in each of the three levels of boards of education with respect to supervisory administration. 2 Though it was recognized that direct supervision would be most important for performing work as a supervisor, office work related to supervision should be paid much more attention. Therefore, it is necessary and important for supervisors to be certified and trained, focused on the expertise of office work related to supervision.

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This paper aims to show the counteraction between two rights, social rights and civil/political rights. The former are rights to receive protection/assistance and the latter are rights to autonomy. To present the conflicts between these rights, we analyze the reasons why the United States of America doesn't ratify the CRC (Convention on the Rights of the Child). The first reason arises from 'entitlement theory,' which excludes social rights from the fundamental rights by defining them as entitlement to be gained through individuals' efforts and autonomy. The federal government strongly asserts this theory, hence the government, is not responsible for social rights such as vocational education, standard of living, and so forth. Furthermore, because the government has reduced the budget since the Reagan era, it is almost impossible to expand security policy to meet the requirements of CRC. The second reason is in the strict securing of civil and political rights. In the United States, it has been authorized since the Gauld case that a juvenile has the due process rights as one of the civil and political rights. This also implies that a juvenile is accountable for his/her crime as well as an adult. With the increase of atrocious juvenile crimes, the due process rights have become widely approved to suppress juvenile crimes. This tendency is typically seen in twenty-four states which still keep the juvenile death penalty system. The results of this analysis indicate that America has abandoned paternalism in compensation for child's autonomy. This policy, however, is appropriate only in the case that child has his/her own ability or autonomy. If this policy is applied automatically in all cases, it may bring disadvantage to a child. The Child's inability to earn, for instance, has to be clearly compensated by assistance of the government. Refusal of the government directly yields deprivation of child rights. We can thus conclude that partial autonomy can lead to an infringement on children's rights. Therefore, when shifting paternalism to child autonomy, it must be considered which is appropriate in each political case.

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This paper analyzes fiscal control in the state school finance system of the United States of America. This paper especially examines how states regulate the tax rate, revenue, and expenditure of school districts through fiscal contorol. There are five types of fiscal control in the state school finance system : property tax rate limit, revenue limit, general expenditure limit, assessment increase limit, and full disclosure. They are imposed on the spending or revenue of school districts. Many states established the tax rate limit in order to reduce the tax burden since the early part of the twentieth century. In the 1970's, many states reformed their school finance systems to equalize the expenditure and tax burden among school districts. And in these reforms many states established new types of fiscal control, that is revenue limits, expenditure limits, assessement increase limits, and full disclosure. The purpose of them is to enhance equalization, the efficiency of fiscal management and accountability. In 1973, Indiana reformed the school finance system. In Indiana, the tax revenues of school districts were frozen at the 1973 level. In 1980, school districts' growth of revenue was limited in assessed value over the previous two years. By the 1994 reform, in the formula of general grants, tax rates and tax revenues of school districts were limited in proportion to the expenditure level, and the target expenditure level which all school districts would reach was set. In 1973, Kansas reformed the school finance system and limited the school district's general fund. At the time, school districts, which had spent less in the prior year than the median per pupil, were allowed to increase their per pupil budget up to 15 percent. On the other hand, school districts which had spent more than the median per pupil were allowed only up to 5 percent. After that, the limit has experienced change many times. By the 1992 reform, the base state aid and the property tax rate are both legally set. In both Indiana and Kansas, the limits are imposed on the increase of tax revenue or expenditure in general. In addition, the limits are set in the formula of state general grants. Also, since 1973, fiscal control has been reinforced. The state general grants have grown in order to equalize the disparities among school districts and that has caused the reinforcement of fiscal control. As result, school districts have lost control over their level of general fund expenditure. The local control has been weaken in Indiana and Kansas. Fiscal control shows the central issue in the school finance system, which is how much we should spend money for schools and how we should ensure it for the schools.

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The aim of the article is to analyze the dynamics of the teacher incentive system through examination of the background, structure, and formative process. The teacher incentive system is a system in which ties between teachers' accountability and some benefits result in pursuit of excellence in instruction. This system has been implemented twice (in the 1920's and the 1950's), but neither trial lasted long. There were also big waves of educational reform in 1980's that can be seen as the third trial to introduce merit pay to the teacher salary system. In Utah, a teacher incentive system was organized in 1984. Utah teacher incentive system has two characteristics. One is that it is compound. There are four components-merit pay, career ladder, job enlargement, and extended contract days. Utah school teachers weren't in a serious educational crisis such as teacher shortage or decline in the level of academic attainment of their students. It was the governor and legislators who gave this legislative reform a forward push. They intended to introduce merit pay into the teacher salary system. Though the Utah Teacher Association was against merit pay, they couldn't influence the legislative process. The governor and the legislators did take teachers' opposition against merit pay into consideration and coupled merit pay with extended contract days, which teachers would support. The other is that it is decentralized. The role of the State educational Agency is only to approve each district plan according to the guideline. It doesn't have so much authority. Career Ladder Planning Commissions in each local school districts plan and administer their systems. They are made of representatives of teachers, school administrators, parents, and school boards. About half of the commission members are teachers on average. These two characteristics are significant in the formative process. Many local commissions maximize extended contract days fund and minimize the merit pay fund. In addition, many commissions distribute the merit pay fund to almost all teachers. Thus, the merit pay component becomes less competitive. Decentralization and teacher participation make such a change possible. As a result, merit pay doesn't work out effectively as a teacher incentive. Merit pay is competitive, performance-based pay in itself. The teacher incentive system should be professional-development-oriented. But as a whole, the teacher incentive system in Utah has gotten support from teachers. The function of the system has changed throughout its whole framework, because it is flexible. Many other states change their teacher incentive system into school incentive or non-monetary compensation, too. They pursue less competitive and more profes sional-development-oriented plans. Whatever types they choose, decentralization is important to keep the system flexible.

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The purpuse of this study is to gain a clue to clarify the principles of accountability of educational administration through examining the understandings expressed in court and by the boards of education and the district legal affairs bureaus about "accountability of educational administration" in the cases of students' suicides caused by bullies in public junior high schools. In both judgments at the Fukushima District Court (Iwaki Branch) and the Tokyo District Court,the cases of students' suicides caused by bullies in school was considered as accidents in school, not as obvious errors by the boards of education. The Tokyo City Board of Education actually made disciplinary punishments against the principal and the teachers of the school, as they didn't deal with the bully among students. This means that the boards of education were not held accountable for these cases. Today, "bullies" in schools are widely regarded as a human rights violation among lawyers. However, it is thought to be schoolteachers' accountability to deal with bullies in school, so they claim to the board of education to simply supervise teachers more carefully. This understanding among lawyers is the same as those of the two judgements on the cases of students' suicides caused by bullies, not only as those generally seen in the judgments on "accidents in school." According to the arguments on "public administrative accountability," all of the understandings above can be seen mainly as arguing "formal accountability." In The Japan Educational Administration Society, arguments related to "accountability of educational administration" were presented at the 16th conference (1981) symposium, titled "accountability of schools and its limitation." There, it was commonly understood that "educational accountability of schools" consists of "legal accountability" and "social responsibility or moral responsibility." It can be seen that these two concepts almost correspond to the concepts of "formal accountability" and "informal responsibility" in the public administration. One of the points of the arguments at the symposium was to search for "informal responsibility" in education. Bullies in school have been mainly dealt with by the principle of "students guidance." But "students guidance" would work enough only in so far as teachers have enough abilities as educational professionals and communicate with their students directly and deeply. Educational administration gives guide and advice, sets conditions according to laws on "students guidance" by teachers, and influences various practices in school. This indicates that we can never see "accountability of educational administration" as "public administrative accountability." According to this paper, it is clear that we cannot blame only teachers for "students' suicide caused by bullies in school." It is also obvious that we cannot think "students guidance" by teachers exclusively as "formal accountability." Rather, the board of education should be blamed because it cannot set conditions in school for students and teachers as educational professionals. The accountability concerning bullies in school must be "informal responsibility."

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The purpose of this study is to estimate influences of the open enrolment policy on secondary schools in England. Open enrolment was introduced by the Education Reform Act 1988 (ERA). It has been the most important educational act since the Education Act of 1944. One of the purposes of the ERA is to raise educational standards. To achieve this, the Government introduced a more competitive quasi-market approach. The two most important measures, in terms of the development of a market, have been open enrolment and local management of schools. In theory, open enrolment was to give parents more power by offering them their choice of school. To estimate the effectiveness of the open enrolment policy, all secondary headteachers (117) in maintained schools in three metropolitan Local Education Authorities (Birmingham, Liverpool, Sheffield) were targeted and a questionnaire was sent to them. The three Local Education Authorities were selected because in these urban areas, there are a variety of schools which parents can apply to according to their preferences. The response rate in this study was 72.6%. Examined were effects of the open enrolment policy as they differ between oversubscribed and other schools. The analysis had two parts. The first examined headteachers' opinions about open enrolment and its consequences in respect of: 1. Oversubscription. 2. Headteachers' attitudes. 3. Competition for pupils among schools. 4. Educational standards. 5. School choice. The second part compared an oversubscribed group to a non-oversubscribed group in terms of actual reactions to open enrolment. It was found that open enrolment had led to more competition for pupils among schools, and parental choice of school was actually unfair. There were relationships between opinions on educational standards and oversubscription. Non-oversubscribed schools did not see open enrolment as beneficial to raise educational standards. As for reactive activities, it was clarified that almost all the headteachers were taking marketing strategies. Regardless of schools' subscriptions, the headteachers were making an increased effort to secure admissions. As long as they cannot resist market forces in reality, a quasi-market approach has the possibility to raise educational standards. However, the majority of headteachers, whose schools were non-oversubscribed schools, do not have confidence that open enrolment will raise educational standards. Therefore, if they try to make increased efforts (but without confidence), it would not succeed in raising educational standards in the long run.

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I. Purposes of this Symposium This symposium was held on 8th October 1995 at the 30th Annual Conference of JEAS. Its purpose was to explore the appropriate support functions of educational administration for effective crisis management in schools, especially when they face the serious problems, for example heavy bullying among their pupils, frequent their schoolphobia, their maladjustment for school life and so on. Furthermore, we intended to pursue the possibility of contribution by the stydy on educational administration as to these problems. II. Themes of Proposals by Four Panelists In this symposium four proposals were given. Their themes were as follows. 1. The concept and basic issues of crisis management in schools. 2. Current situation of crisis management in a public school. 3. Support functions of boards of education for crisis management in schools. 4. Tasks of support functions of educational administration : some future prospects of the study on educational administration. III. Main Issues of the Discussion and Future Tasks of Research on these Problems Main issues of the discussion were as follows, (a) The concept of "crisis" in schools should be still refined. Because the causes of problems such as serious bullying among pupils cannot be limited to intra-factors of schools, (b) Although the process of crisis management in schools can be largely devided into pre-managemant and post-management, schools must fully prepare to maintain stable and effective their activities to ristrict and resolve those serious problems. (c) Boards of education should play support roles as schools' control bureaus for collecting and reporting accurate informations as to these serious problems and for establishing appropriate relationships among parents, residents and schools. Fortunately, through this symposium we have identified the future tasks of the study on educational administration. That is to say, we must pay more research attention to and continuously improve the systematic study on crisis management in schools. However we must also be cautious to that the study on educational administration will lay emphasis on negative or pessimistic phenomena of public education.

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One year has passed since the "Convention on the Rights of the Child" came into effect in Japan. The main aim of this convention is to improve the environment for the humman rights of the children in the developing countries. But not a few articles in this convention have an important meaning also for school education in our country. For example, not only the general principles under which the nation performs it's duty security for the maximum benefit of the child, and the duty of respecting the educational rights and responsibilities of parents but also the civil rights and the procedural rights of children are guaranteed by the articles in this convention. And these are very important matters. What impacts will these articles have on school education and educational administration in our country actually and concretely ? Will they request not only the more useful management of the school education and the educational administration, but also the reform of the educational law system? Further, will they force the structural conversion of the school educational system and type of school education? What is the essential attribute of school and education in this context ? What relation will they have to the keeping of discipline and to the request for the maintenance of authority in education? This research focus was planned to approach these subjects from many-sided points of view, actually and concretely, and the following matters were pointed out as important subjects in the future for our school education and educational administration. (1) Constitution of the educational relation based on the relation between rights and duties (2) School education based on the fundamental human rights of the child (3) Education to independence and education to self-responsibility (4) Reinforcement of parental rights and responsibilities in school education (5) Possibility and limit of discipline by school regulations (6) Participation of pupils in the school (7) Reform of the school law system

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1. The purpose of this theme The declining birth rate of recent years has been affected very seriously by the system of teacher training. Universities as well as junior colleges, which are responsible for teacher training or have teachers training course, have to reorganize such courses by any means. On the other hand, the rapidly changing society has made teacher training courses to adjust to such new trends as internationalization, life long education and so on. Teacher training at the post graduate level has been realized not only at the master's course but at the doctorate level to provide more professionalized skill and knowledge. 2. Summary of discussion This session was designed to discuss the possibility of teacher training systems in the near future. The first panelist was to examine the estimated trend of teachers' demands according to the census and government policy. The next pointed out that the state university of education should be responsible for teacher training at the post graduate course and that private universities should be involved at the under graduate level after clarifying the principles of teacher training from government policy. The last panelist discussed the purpose of teacher training education at the post graduate stage, particularly at the doctorate level. He concluded that a much more refined ability, which has been needed both at school and in research institutes would be the meaning of training at such a stage. The general trends of discussion after the presentation are classified according to the following points: Firstly, the propriety of basic teacher training at private universities was discussed. The second issue was the aim of post graduate courses. It was pointed out that the ability to supervise senior teachers and to organize research projects should be necessary according to the changing role of schools. Finally, the relation between undergraduate and post graduate course and their individual roles were also discussed.

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1. Research in educational laws and disputation on 'The course of study' After World War II in Japan, a new educational system was founded based on laws focused on the principle of educational freedom. Research in educational laws was undertaken about the new educational system's laws. At that time the Ministry of Education declared that 'the course of study' is a reference book for curriculum organization because of the principle of educational freedom. In 1955, the Ministry of Education disputed that the course of study are legal standards for curriculum organization. But I wrote that the course of study is only a private document by copyright law, and I continued to note that the course of study should be a public announcement by the Government, if the course of study was to have legality for a curriculum organizational standard in my paper of May 1956. The Ministry of Education then legislated the course of study by ministerial order in 1958. 2. Educational war and development of research in educational laws Opposition in the right wing to the left wing in the world, extended to political and educational ideals being in opposition in Japan. The Japan Teachers Union (JTU) as a labor union became left. The late Prof. Seiya Munakata instructors of JTU, his schools and Prof. Masashi Kaneko supplied leftist educational administrational theory to JTU. Kaneko especially contributed to the establishment of jurisprudence. His theory contributed to JTU's educational, labor and political movement, by his theory as 'the order of nature (Natur der Sache) theory' in some of his books. The JTU disputed the administrative actions of the Educational Ministry. These opposing situations have been generally called the 'educational war'. Research in educational laws developed in this educational war takes the position of a theory as legal positivism in my research. Moreover, Munakata and his schools obstructed entablishment of the JEAS for many eyars, but the JEAS was established at last in 1966. 3. Research in lawful educational principles Therefore, is opposition in the order of nature part of theory, especially legal positivism. Why are these two theories the opposite of each other ? These are the basic subjects for research in educational laws. The first subject is the general principle of educational laws. The second subject is the relation of human nature to educational laws. I wrote some books about these subjects. 4. Invitation to research in the principles of educational laws Up to this time, we had research in educational laws by some methods of jurisprudence. Now we should do research in the principles of the educational laws. Then, as a research method should also be a philosophical method and the research is done so that we can get to the fundamentals of educational laws.

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The Ministry of Education and the prefectural boards of education have enforced some administrative polices to pupils who refuse to go to school in recent years. For example, public educational counseling institutions were established and educational counselors were stationed in many schools. To clarify trends of the administrative polices enforced to pupils who refuse to go to school in the municipal boards of education, I sent questionnaires to 663 city boards of education in December 1995, and received 437 responses(65.9%). The results are as follows: 1) In the small-scale city boards of education, the main administrative policy is the telephone counseling on general educational matters. In the middle-scale boards of education, the counseling rooms and the adjustment guidance classes for pupils who refuse to go to school are established. In the large-scale boards of education, the educational counselors are stationed in the elementary schools and the junior high schools. 2) Few city boards of education enact the rules on pupils who refuse to go to school when they promote their academic grade or graduate from their courses. Most city boards of education trust principals with such authorities. 3) Half of the city boards of education established the adjustment guidance classes. However,the legal grounds for the establishment of the classes are not so clear. And the curriculum of the classes are not so controlled by the city boards of education. 4) There are few city boards of education which enact the guidelines on the private institutions for pupils who refuse to go to school. In view of the results, more examination is needed into the problems of the pupils who refuse to go to school in the point of public education.

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(1) The purpose of this study The purpose of this research is to examine the meaning of foundation and reorganization of the teacher consultant system in post-war Japan. The teacher consultant system was founded by the Board of Education Law in 1948. When the Law Concerning Organization and Function of Local Educational Administration (LCOFLEA) was enacted in 1956, the obligation regulation of teacher consultants was changed. The Ministry of Education explained that duties of a teacher consultant are the same as the past ones. However, many teachers and educational specialists criticized that this change leads to revival of the old inspector system. We should research the history of the system of teacher consultants so that we can clarify the nature of the obligations of teacher consultants. In this book, the following problems were examined: Who reformed the local inspector system under the occupation, and why did they do it ? As the system of teacher consultants was founded in postwar Japan, the Ministry of Education published two guidebooks for teacher consultants. What ideas were these books based on? Why was the certificate for teacher consultants made? Why was it abolished? Immediately after the teacher consultant system was established, the Institute for Educational Leadership was developed. What did they study in this training ? How was the teacher consultant system changed after the LCOFLEA? In this book, much historical material in Japan and United States was analyzed, CIE Records, Trainor Collection, Sengo Kyouiku Shiryou, Tsujita Chikara Bunsyo, and so on. (2) The summary of conclusions The report of the first United States Education Mission in March 1946 recommended that old inspectors should be changed into supervisors who help teachers professionally, and that their qualification should be improved. This report did not describe the involvement of inspectors in the personnel administration of teachers. On the contrary, the Japanese Education Committee criticized it. The committee insisted that inspectors should have no relation with personnel affairs. The Ministry of Education thought that the old inspector system should be divided into administrative supervisors who took charge of personnel affairs and instructional supervisors who advise teachers on teaching and instruction. The CIE ordered the Ministry of Education to change inspectors into teacher consultants in December 1947. In the following April CIE presented the Ministry of Education a bill which CIE had made. The proviso "but they shall issue no orders and exercise no control" was attached by CIE to this bill. The law for Certification of Educational Personnel was then enacted in 1949. This law found certifications of teacher consultants, principals, and superintendents of education. CIE instructed to the Ministry of Education that it was necessary to make a system of these certifications. CIE tried to make teacher consultants be "on the teachers' side." This was connected with the idea of CIE that tried to diffuse empirical curricula in Japan. After the LCOFLEA enactment in 1956 and the revision of course of study in 1958, teacher consultants changed to be leaders "from above." On the other hand, supervisors in charge of personnel administration were newly founded in most prefectures. Then the reform plan of the Ministry of Education under the occupation was realized.

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