Prior to Chamberlain, F. V. Dickins translated Japanese Lyrical Odes, but the outcome was far from perfect. In 1939 Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai published The Manyoshu, whose introduction said, “The first adequate work in this field appeared in 1880 in The Classical Poetry of the Japanese which was written by Basil Hall Chamberlain (1850-1935), then professor of Tokyo Imperial University and a foremost authority on Japanese classics.” Since the time of its publication The Classical Poetry of the Japanese has been the standard textbook among those interested in Japanese poetry.
Chamberlain came to Japan in 1873 and read his paper on The Use of Pillow-Words and Plays upon Words in Japanese Poetry in 1877 at the Asiatic Society of Japan. There he suggested that a careful study of the ancient poetry of Japan must precede any successful attempt to translate the Hebrew Psalms into Japanese. In the same year he read his own translation of The Maiden of Unai at the A. S. J. and in this translation we can see his style of rendering in rhyme well-established. In 1880 he published The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, the first orthodox study on Japanese poetry. He chose the verses from The Manyoshu, the Kokinshu, Yokyoku and Kyagen. All poems taken from The Manyoshu were cho-ka, longer poems of 5.7.5.....7.7 syllables, and the short stanza tanka of 5.7.5.7.7 syllables were taken out of The Kokinsha. They were all translated in accordance with traditional English prosody : in ballad style, elegiac stanza, heroic couplet and blank verses, etc.
Lectures on Japan, the collection of lectures Dr. Nitobe gave in the U.S.A. and Canada was published in 1936. In it he introduced ten poems out of The Manyoshu and The Kokinshu. He said, “I shall take a few typical pieces of Japanese poetry translated by some of the best English translators, chiefly Aston, Chamberlain and Waley.” He did not give the name of the translator of each poem, but it is easy to guess the translator from the way it is rendered. Chamberlain translated freely in rhyme in accordance with the traditional English prosody, while Aston and Waley were literalists.
In spite of Nitobe's apparent reference to Chamberlain's rhymed translation, Chamberlain had changed his rendering style after The Classical Poetry of the Japanese. Three years after the publication, his translation of the Kojiki appeared. This translation includes a number of tanka. Here we can see his shift from a free translator to a literalist. He rendered tanka word for word and explained his attitude : “The only object aimed at has been a rigid and literal conformity with the Japanese text.” In his next book, A Practical Introduction to the Study of Japanese Writing (1899) he showed a new word-for-word translation of the same tanka from the Kokinshtu that in The Classical Poetry of the Japanese he had already rendered in rhymed style. Chamberlain even declared openly in the preface of Japanese Poetry (1910), the revised edition of The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, that he had joined the camp of literalists.
In 1899 Aston published A History of Japanese Literature and it turned out to be an important work in the innovation of tanka in the Meiji Era. In this book, influenced by Chafnberlain's The Classical Poetry of the Japanese, he criticized Japanese poetry from the Westerner's point of view. Yosano Tekkan, quoting Aston's view on Japanese poetry in the early numbers of the Myojo, led the movement of Innovating tanka. This also shows that Chamberlain was a great pioneering scholar on Japanese poetry.

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My object in writing this paper is to disclose European and American poets' real names selected and their poems translated into Japanese by Ohwada Takeki for his book Ohbei Meika Shishu (Selected Poems from the works of the Famous European and American Authors, 1894) and discuss his way of translating European and American poetry into Japanese and the characteristics that distinguish the book from other Japanese translation books of Western poetry.
Ohwada Takeki was born on 29th of April, 1857, in the province of Iyo where is now called Ehime Prefecture and died a scholar in Japanese literature at the age of 54, in 1910, in Tokyo. During his life he wrote his 97 books, 154 volumes of his travel diary and many dozens of his songs. Among them, the book is well-known to the Japanese and may deserve to be studied in the field of historical studies of English poetry translated to suit Japanese readers.
Almost twelve years earlier than the book appeared, a book entitled Shin-Taishi Sho (A Selection of Poems in New Style, 1882) was published by Maruya Zenshichi in Tokyo. By publishing this book the three co-authors may be said to have tried a literary experiment in writing their poetry in new style.
Ohwada Takeki chose 65 European and American poets and their 106 poems for the book and translated them into Japanese poems in new style, I should say, to improve the results of the experiment.
Focusing on 99 English and American poems from among 106 poems taken in the book, it might be worth noting that they were familiar to the Japanese of those days; all the images of nature and human life are dealt with in them; they took their share in the making of the literary movement towards romanticism in history of Japanese litrature; they are quite different from English poetry which the Japanese poets of the symbolist school were influenced by; and they are translated in the middle way between paraphrase and imitation according to Dryden's theory of translation, therefore, Ohwada Takeki's aim was, I may add, to translate poetry, not simply the words of poems.

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Most current dictionaries say that “Kirin” is a correct Japanese translation of giraffe, which is an Arabic word meaning “fast walker.”
Japanese and Chinese words usually use the same Chinese characters, but the Chinese word for giraffe is Changjinglu (長頸鹿) “long-necked deer”, whereas Kirin is a mythical animal that traditionally appeared in connection with the arrival of a saint.
In the Ming dynasty, Kirin was used in the meaning of giraffe in China, some of which passages the writer found in 'The History of Ming (明史).'
But as more people saw giraffes, they became more aware of the differences between Kirin and giraffe.
In 1860, Gempo Mitsukuri tried translating the Latin name Camelopardalis (camel-panther) into 'Hyoda.'
But in 1907 when the first giraffe was actually imported to Japan and called a Kirin by Dr. Chiyomatsu Ishikawa (first director of Ueno Zoo), “Kirin” became the official word in Japan.

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Ranald MacDonald (1824-1894) who got into Japan in 1848, when the doors of the country were closed to foreign countries, taught English to Japanese Dutch interpreters at Nagasaki for about 6 months, while he was imprisoned there. The names of the 14 students in his list have been identified. Their ages raged from 16 to 73, and their ranks as interpreter varied from the lowest to the highest. They were from families engaged in the hereditary occupation for about 200 years by that year. A few of them had already possessed certain knowledge of English. Moriyama was an interpreter on the occasion of Capt. Mercator Cooper's visit to Japan in 1845, when he translated Government orders to the Captain into English, and Uemura was one of the Dutch interpreters who started to study English under the Government orders in 1809, having Yan Cock Blomhoff at Dutch factory as their teacher of English, who, in the strict sense, was Japan's first teacher of English. Fathers or grandfathers of most of MacDonald's students were Blomhoff's students. The significance of MacDonald's English teaching was that it was by the first English teacher whose native language was English, and that it firmly took root in this country. In September 1850, about 18 months after the departure of MacDonald from Japan, all the Dutch interpreters were ordered to study English and Russian languages, and to compile an English-Japanese dictionary. Moriyama was one of the two responsible for this project. Unfortunately, the dictionary was unfinished after completion of 7 volumes on A and B, because the interpreters become too busy to continue compiling another, being forced to be involved in the negotiations of Japan with foreign countries after the visits of Perry and Putyatin in 1853. However, the knowledge of English taught by MacDonald was shared among their colleagues during the period of about 3 years' learning, and not only his students but also those who learned from them made great contributions to the civilization of Japan, by devoting themselves in their work, teaching English, and transmitting western culture.

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Since MacDonald was first introduced here in Japan, it has been said over and over again that he was born on February 3, 1824. It is no doubt that he was born in 1824, but it is highly doubtful whether he was born on February 3. Though much evidence suggests that he was not born on February 3, the most persuasive seems to be the deposition he gave to Commander Glynn and other high-ranking officials on board the Preble on April 30, 1849 after the warship left Nagasaki Harbor. He said to them, “I was born at Astoria, in Oregon; I am twenty-four years of age....” If he had been born on February 3, he should naturally have said then and there that he was twenty-five., That he did not say so confirms the fact that he was born in May or June, and not on February 3.
Then why did he choose the date February 3 as his birthday? It is because he came to know, perhaps later in life, that Horace Greeley, an American journalist, whom he seems to have respected, had been born on the day. His choice of the date shows nothing but his vanity. And at the same time, it is interesting to note in connection with his birthday that his father, Archibald McDonald, had also been born on February 3. But it seems that McDonald did not know about his father's birthday.
It has also been said again and again that McDonald died on August 5, 1894. Yet one cannot accept this to the letter, for there is an obituary notice that he died on August 24, and not on August 5. The obituary was written just when he died and just where he died. His half brother also said that he died on August 24. And even now, in his home state Washington, there sometimes appear newspaper reports that he died on August 24. Then, when did he die? On August 5 or on August 24?
In the Eastern Washington State Historical Society at Spokane in Washington, there is an affidavit that tells the exact location where McDonald was buried after he died. The affidavit bears the signature of Jennie Lynch, MacDonald's niece. It should be remembered that she is said to be the very woman in whose arms he breathed his last. She is testifying here that MacDonald was buried on August 7, which means that MacDonald died probably around August 5. Since she is the only woman that knew at first hand the circumstances in which he died, one cannot but conclude that MacDonald died on August 5. But even then, some mystery still seems to remain.

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The calamity of the siege war of Wakamatsu Castle was beyond description. A group of daring women (joshigun) fought with halberds (naginata), while some mothers, thinking they would rather kill themselves than be encumbrances to the besieged or than fall into the enemy only to be outraged by them, stabbed their children and then fell on their swords.
Sutematsu, a sister of a retainer, entered the castle with her mother and sisters and survived the war. She was lucky to be chosen one of the girl students sent to America and, leading a happy life at a Puritan home, graduated from Vassar College with unprecedented honors. Soon after she came back to Japan she wrote a letter to an American friend of hers, saying : though they often say of dying for the honor of their country, I beieve it is much more difficult to live than to die for the country and what Japan needs most is a long sustained effort that can be made only by those who are anxious to serve this country.
We may say that Western learning in Aizu started early in the Meiji era when Yamakawa Kenjiro and her sister Sutematsu were sent to America for learning English studies by Kaitakushi (a government agency for the development of Hokkaido).
This paper concerns how English studies influenced upon Oyama Sutematsu who was typical of those women that, after living through the calamity of the siege war, led trag ical lives at their early age and eventually found a new way of living by the chance to learn and appreciate Cristianity and its culture.

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The earlier part of the personal history of Yoshitami Naruto (1835-1913) has not been clearly known. And in spite of the fact that he made great contributionsto English educational progress in Japan at the beginning of the Meiji era, his achievements are not very well known.
Yoshitami Naruto was born in Awa. Today in Tokushima he has become a legendary person in the story, such as Awa Konjahu Monogatari (阿波今昔物語・1942), Kiko to Itsuwa no Izumi (奇行と逸話の泉・1964), and so on.
This article tries to shed a historic light on the man Yoshitami Naruto and to present the role he played in the modernization of Japan.

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Junjiro Hosokawa (1834-1923) was a scholar of Chinese classics and a jurist born in the province of Tosa.
In 1890 he was appointed member of the House of Peers, and in 1893 member of Privy Council. He was raised on the baronage in 1900.
In his youth he studied Dutch and English, and also artillery and navigation at Nagasaki and Yedo. He became the chief of Yaku Kyoku (Translation Bureau) of Kaiseikan established by the Tosa clan.
In 1871 he was sent to San Francisco where an Exhibition was to be held. After the exhibition he made a tour over the continent as far as the cities on the eastern coast. He kept a diary of the tour in Chinese classics and published a book titled Shinkohu Kiho (Journal of the first visit to a foreign country). His book tells how successfully he carried out his mission and how closely he watched things American.
The latter half of this essay is on John Reddie Black and the Nisshin Shinjishi. When the government wanted Black to quit his business and employed him as a foreign consultant, Junjiro Hosokawa visited Black and pursuaded him. Several historians affirms so. But judging from Black's letter to the British consulate, I guess it was not Junjiro Hosokawa that visited Black but another man named Hiroyo Hosokawa.

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Philanthropy, a rather unfamiliar term in Japan, was derived from a Greek word φιλανθρωπια that meant love to mankind. When the English word 'philanthropy' was coined in the early seventeenth century, it acquired a specific meaning in connection with the Christian view of mankind and it was Francis Bacon who used this word in this connotation.
Man is a specially privileged kind of creature above all others but is put in a miserable condition because he has been banished from Paradise owing to his disobedience to God. So the first thing man has to do is to recover Paradise. This is, however, entirely unattainable by man's effort, but is made attainable by the coming and the secondcoming of Christ the Saviour.
Then, has man simply to wait for the second coming of Christ while only staying in deep sympathy with one another for man's common misery? Bacon fully recognized this misery for which he had deep sympathy. This was the first part of his philanthropy. Further and more positively he thought he had discoverd a new method of learning according to which one could promote human welfare and decrease the amount of human misery. This would partly recover Paradise. So Bacon proposed this method and invited people to co-operate with him in his project. Such was the essence of Bacon's philanthropy.
The response was immediate in the Western countries, as they started to organize scientific societies, the Royal Society of London to begin with, and to publish encyclopaedias, “for the benefit of mankind” by “promoting useful knowledge among people.” Creation of various philanthropic institutions followed.
It was just at this time when John Milton in London was composing his Paradise Lost and then Paradise Regained that Robert Hooke of the Royal Society of London wrote the following remark, which exactly, echoed Bacon's desideratum, in the Preface to his scientific work Micrographia (1665) :
And as at first, mankind fell by tasting of the forbidden Tree of knowledge, so we, their Posterity, may be in part restor'd by the same way, not only by beholding and contemplating, but by tasting too those fruits of Natural knowledge, that were never yet forbidden.
This was no mere coincidence but convincing evidence to indicate that the Western people were most keenly concerned about the loss and regaining of Paradise and that Milton's great literary work and Bacon's philanthropy both came out of this same rudimentary concern for the human destiny.

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Generally speaking, a society can be separated into three areas : Government and all the administrative activities that accompany it (the first sector), private business activities for profit (the second sector) and non-profit organizational activities (the third sector).
Non-profit organizations are financed by the Government and from individual and corporate donations. Usually foundations are set up as financing organizations. These foundations help to promote the welfare of the community in a democratic society. Such contributions and activities are known as philanthropy.
Japanese philanthropic spirit, which is emerging today, can also be traced to two periods of Japanese history. The first in the latter half of the 16th century and early part of the 17th century. During this period Christians (“Kirishitan”), actually Roman Catholics, organized “Misericordias”, a mutual support group to aid orphans, the old, the weak and the sick.
On the other hand, during this period, the roots of public spiritedness can be found among the people of Kyoto (“Machishu”). Representative of this time were Ryoi Suminokura and his son So-an. This family of wealthy pawnbrokers were engaged in foreign trade with Siam and other South East Asian countries. The profits they made were used for the public good, one of which was the deepening of the Oigawa River by Ryoi to open a water transportation route to Kyoto from the Tanba area. So-an published the so-called “Saga-block”, a beautiful set of books on the classics of China and Japan.
Such “Machishu” philanthropic spirit continued to thrive during the Edo era despite Tokugawa Shogunate feudalism. Such illustrious names as Suzuki Seisan, Ishida Baigan kept the spirit alive. Yokoi Shonan and Fukuzawa Yukichi carried the torch during the Meiji Restoration.
The second period was from the middle of the Meiji era (1868-1912) to the Taisho era (1912-1926). During this period, Japan became a modern country and a world power. Foundations were set up by a number of business leaders of the period and these foundations contributed to many non-profit organizations engaged in education, medicine, social work and so on.
We are now entering what I feel is the third period. A Japanese research fellow of the Urban Institute in America, who returned to Japan after several years' absence, said her impression was that Japanese society was dominated by government and private business organizations and that non-profit organizational activities were very limited indeed.
After fifty years of democracy and with the economic stability and wealth of the country established it is important to promote philanthropy for the benefit of all citizens.

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