Five months after Pearl Harbor, in February of 1942, President Roosevelt issued Executive Order 9066, which authorized the U.S. military to evacuate any and all persons from "military areas" and the army issued its first Civilian Exclusion Orders, requiring that "all Japanese persons, both alien and non-alien, will be evacuated" to "relocation camps" in March. By the end of the war in 1945, 119,893 Japanese were sent to the camps. Once an exclusion order was issued, Japanese were not allowed to keep their house or business, and they were not provided any place to keep their assets. The evacuees were required to liquidate their assets in few days, and gather whatever possessions they could carry.
When American-Japanese reached the camps, they saw spare, prison-like compounds situated on sun-baked deserts, dotted with watchtowers and surrounded by barbed wire. Life in the camps had a military flavour; interments slept in barracks with no running water, took their meals in vast mess halls, and went about daily labour. When Japanese were confined in the internment camp, though, they still created gardens on the barren land surrounded by hedgehog.
Manzanar was the biggest camp among the ten internment camps used during the war in U.S. The camp consisted of thirty-six blocks of wooden barracks, once imprisoning 10,046 men, women, and children. Many gardens were created in Manzanar, including a big strolling garden whose remnant of a big pond with carefully placed rocks still remains. The Japanese imprisoned in the internment camp made such gardens to keep a hope to live in this world. When Japanese suffered from the racial discrimination and harsh labour on the barren land, and when being a Japanese could be fatal crime, they made a Japanese garden gathering their remaining little materials and their human power. This paper will first introduce Japanese internment camps in US and gardens in Manzanar, and then analyze their design concepts and influences.

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Yataro Iwasaki founded the Mitsubishi Group, which has been the biggest business group in Japan for these past 100 years. His younger brother Yanosuke, Yataro's son Hisaya and Yanosuke's son Koyata in this order succeeded Yataro as the leader of the Mitsubishi Group. These four men of the Iwasaki Family built many gardens, and this research examines eleven of the Iwasaki gardens made in the period between early Meiji Era and early Showa Era (1877-1935) and the development in the designs of these gardens.
After the long seclusion period in the Edo Era, western culture was eagerly introduced in Japan and western-style buildings, clothes and foods became popular in the Meiji Era. Each of Yataro, Yanosuke, Hisaya and Koyata had extensive exposure to western culture: Yataro's business involved trading with western merchants and he stayed in Nagasaki and Yokohama where many western people lived in western-style buildings; and Yanosuke, Hisaya and Koyata had experience living in the United States or England. Nevertheless, the designs of the earlier Iwasaki gardens had similarities to the Daimyo gardens of the Edo Era. In the later half of the Meiji Era (1889-1912), even when the Iwasaki Family constructed western-style houses designed by Josiah Conder, an English architect, however, most of the Iwasaki gardens around these houses were not western-style gardens but remained in the Japanese style. The only western-style garden was made at Yanosuke's house in Takanawa built in 1908.
After the end of the Meiji Era, the taste of the Iwasaki Family favored a new type of Japanese gardens, which are the gardens designed by the famous gardener Jihei Ogawa and the Choukinso garden in the Koiwai Farm. The gardens of Hisaya and Koyata abandoned the Daimyo style and the western-style, both of which were adopted with the likely intention of showing the Iwasaki Family's power and wealth to raise the public's estimation of the Iwasaki Family and Mitsubishi. Hisaya and Koyata began to seek gardens for personal pleasure and chose a new type of Japanese gardens. Those new gardens were composed of Japanese-style elements in the designs of ponds, streams, stepping-stones and plants. Although these gardens used Japanese elements, these gardens could be described as "new" Japanese gardens because they were not bound by traditional expressions often seen in previous Japanese gardens such as symbolisms, religious meanings or views sourced from Japanese poem (tanka) or noted places. The new designs emphasized components of nature selected by the owner and reflecting the owner's individuality and sense of value. For example, Hisaya liked mountains and farmland while Koyata liked haiku and tea ceremony - these elements played the main roles in their new Japanese gardens. This transformation in the garden designs seems to be a derivative of the idea of "individualism" introduced at the end of the Meiji Era.
The sequence of the eleven gardens of the Iwasaki Family shows us the development of Japanese garden culture from the Meiji Era to early Showa Era. Facing the flood of western culture in the Meiji Era, Japanese gardens were not ruined but were restructured to a new type of Japanese gardens to reflect the idea of "individualism" after the end of the Meiji Era.

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In the third half of Edo period, economic growth made wealthy merchant and farmer in everywhere. They are grew up into literary figure. They long for Chinese Landscape Garden and produced those imitation Garden in there residence. Gankaen Garden build in Asikaga City of Tochigi Prefecture was typify of there Garden. The same age, same concept Garden build in the Japanese archipelago. In this paper, I insist on those garden "Chinese Landscape Garden in the third half of Edo period" in the Japanese Garden histry, and deliberate meanihg.

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