Parental care is crucial for the survival of young animals. In particular, inappropriate parental behaviors such as abuse and neglect increase the probability of the incidence and severity of mental disorders of the young animals in future. Although the medial preoptic area is known as the most important brain region for controlling parental behavior, it also contributes to various instinctive aspects such as sexual behavior, sleep, and body temperature regulation. The formation of parental behavioral choices remains unclear. Recent advancements in genetic manipulation technologies have enabled the observation and manipulation of specific cell activities in the brains of free-moving animals. Several researchers have investigated the functions and alterations of brain regions associated with parental behavior, including the medial preoptic area. In the present paper, we discuss the latest findings regarding brain function alterations that influence parental behavior and aggression toward their offspring.

From the first day of life, infants express non-verbal cues, such as facial expressions, vocalization, and body movement, to convey their physical state and needs to their caregivers. Such a stimulation from infants triggers parenting behaviors. To perform sensitive and appropriate parenting behaviors, interpreting the emotional state and needs of infants based on non-verbal cues is important for caregivers. In particular, the development of parenthood-related changes in the brain, body, and mind for mothers and fathers begin during pregnancy and continues after childbirth through repeated contact with the infant. Thus, this study aims to demonstrate the neurophysiological basis of parenting behaviors in humans. We present our recent findings on mothers' perception of changes in facial expressions as a result of parenting experience, the factors that determine individual differences, and the emergence of parental brain development in fathers. Lastly, we discuss the possibility of an integrated understanding of parental development and support for parents and children.

The collapse of alloparenting, which is an essential parental style of human beings, has resulted in solo parenting. This isolated parenting increases the psychological burden of a parent, which is one of the causes of the declining birthrate. Understanding parenthood and implementing social support are required to reduce isolated parenting. Parenthood has been explored in terms of psychological developmental processes and related factors of parents. In contrast, it has been difficult to evaluate individual differences in parental development from an early stage and to detect risks in parenting. Recent neurophysiological studies have revealed the information processing system of the brain (i.e., the parental brain) that underlies parental development. In this paper, we discuss the definition of the parental brain, individual differences in the development of the parental brain, and the relationship between the parental brain and psychological problems. Furthermore, we discuss the possibility of applications for supporting parenthood to fathers based on individual differences in paternal brain development.

This paper reviews the findings of brain imaging studies related to human parenting behavior. To examine brain function in healthy parenting, we first review the basic findings on the neuroendocrine basis of parenting behavior revealed by animal studies and further investigate the involvement of the cortical networks in human parenting behavior. Next, to examine brain dysfunction due to parenting difficulties, the effects of parental stress on brain function are outlined, including the findings of our previous functional brain imaging study. The effects of clinical psychological interventions for parenting dysfunction on behavior and brain function are also examined. Furthermore, to examine brain function during the preparation stage of parenting, research on changes in the brain function of adolescents who become parents are reviewed. Lastly, we propose a perspective on supporting caregivers based on recent advances in neuroscience research.

Parents of children in their late infancy, toddlerhood, and early childhood (preschoolers) are required to play multifaceted roles, such as caregiving and socializing. This study presents a review of previous studies concerning practical research that focuses on caregiving as well as fundamental psychological research that highlights socialization. First, the review outlines the transition process of children into independence through parental support and scaffolding in terms of “fundamental daily habits” (i.e., eating, excreting, sleeping, dressing, and maintaining hygiene). Second, the review introduces the domain-specific approach of socialization and the parental goal-regulation model and discusses the relationship between them from a practical viewpoint. The study suggests that promoting research that emphasizes the importance of self-control in various scenarios and discusses effective roles for each parent is crucial for supporting parenting practices.

The purpose of this study was to examine the role of recess as a mediating variable between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) traits and psychosocial maladjustment in children. The participants were 5,366 pairs of general elementary and junior high school students (grades 4–9) and their parents. A path analysis revealed that the higher the ASD traits, the more time was spent on non-interpersonal play during recess. The results of estimating the extent to which the mediating variable, recess time, explained the association between ASD traits and psychosocial maladjustment showed that the indirect effect via recess play ranged from 20% to 60% of the total indirect effects (recess time + friendships) and from 20% to 40% of the total effects (direct effects + indirect effects). Although recess play was regarded as one of the subcomponents of friendship, it explained 65% of the indirect effects of prosocial behavior, 46% of depression, and 26% of aggression, suggesting that the role of recess in friendship is exceptionally large. We consider that psychosocial maladjustments are mediated by recess.

This study evaluated the preliminary effectiveness of implementing Ikari Yawaraka Lesson, a universal anger management program comprising five 45-min lessons, in small groups. It recruited 25 elementary school students in Grades 3–6 from two locations and assessed their comprehension of program contents, self-reported anger and aggression, and parent-reported aggression before and one month after the implementation, as well as the frequency of use of learned anger management skills one month after the implementation. The results indicated that students mostly understood the program contents. Therefore, it was appropriate for elementary school children in Grades 3–6. Additionally, the study observed overall reductions in self- and parent-reported aggression scores after the implementation. A group difference was noted for changes in self-reported aggression scores. Children's comprehension of program contents correlated only with self-reported hostility among the anger and aggression scores one month after the implementation. Future directions include evaluating the effectiveness of the program in attaining the goal of universal education through its implementation in regular classrooms.

Recent studies on identity development process have reported that identity achievement occurs after early adulthood. Nevertheless, certain changes in early adolescence can mark the beginning of identity development. Thus, this study examines the state of identity from late childhood to middle adolescence and explores the aspects of self-consciousness related to identity development. The study recruited 2,092 students from the sixth year of elementary school to the third year of high school. States of identity were measured using the Dimensions of Identity Development Scale (DIDS). The mean of the DIDS sub-scores and the proportion of identity statuses for each grade demonstrated that identity awareness increased with the increase in year level during the junior high and high school. Initially, identity awareness decreased to the lowest status during the first year of junior high school. Moreover, DIDS scores were significantly positively correlated with private self-consciousness. In summary, this study found that the process of identity development begins upon entering junior high school and is associated with the stimulation of private self-consciousness.