For the solution of Piaget's “three mountain's task” by children, it seems necessary for them to acquire three-dimensional coordinates reference system and the action of projection. The purposes of the present study are to try to form the action of projection with three-dimensional coordinates reference system in first and second grade school children under the experimentally constructed training programs and to discuss the possibilities of their learning.
In the first preparatory program, made of 6 steps of training, children learn the action of identification of left-right relationship of objects (dolls) on the base of three-dimensional reference system (left-right, upward downward, before-behind of objects). At the first step children are allowed to use their bodies as reference system in order to identify the right or left hand of dolls presented concretely in different postures, but at the final step they have to do it with the dolls verbally and imaginarily presented, depending only on internalized reference system. In the second main program, which contains 20 steps of training, we use a three-dimensional coordinates frame (Fig. 1), by which we can give children concrete tasks of projection of points or of objects on the 4 vertical planes. In the first stage of training (step 1-14) children learn to measure and express the projection of points on each of 4 vertical planes in two-dimensional coordinates; at first they are allowed to move themselves to the front of each plane of the frame and measure Y- and Y-coordinates of each projected point, but after-wards they must do them all, remaining on the same position. After learning of the action of projection of points, in the second stages (15-18 steps), they learn to draw projection of objects (piles of colored wooden blocks, a beer jug, a coffee pot and others) on each of 4 plahes, making use of projection of points of markeres of objects as reference points of drawing. Then in the last stage of training (step 19-20), aiming at promoting internalization of action, the coordinates frame are taken off, children learn to draw projections of objects (a coffee cup, a cap, a kettle and others) on the imagined planes without the help of coordinates frame and reference markeres.
For the period of 8 months,. 4first and second grade school children (training group) were trained under tarese programs and the progress of their performances with the “three mountain's tasks” were compared with the. change of performances with the same tasks of 5 third and fourth grade school children (comparative group), who had participated in the training only under the preparatory program.
As the steps of training advancd on, especjally after the training of steps 15-17, the performances with the “three mountain's tasks” of training group's children began to change gradually. And finally the results of control tests showed that 3 of 4 training group children had completely acquired the action of projection of objects with the three-dime ntional coordinates reference system, which was ehough for the successful solution of the “three-mountain's tasks” and the remaining one with his action ungeneralized. It was also showed that mean performances or progresses on these tasks of training group approximately corresponded to that of com- parative grogp, which showed gradual progresses for 6 months after training under the preparatory program.
Data obtained in these experiment ssuggest high possibilities of learning of Euclidian three-dimensional coordinates reference system and the action of projection by lower and middle grade school children, when their actions are nicely organized at their first stage of education at the level of materialized concrete actions, as suggested by the theory of stage-by-stage formatlon of mental action.

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The purpose of the present study was to examne the relation between the formation of transformational anticipatory image and object transform action, perception and imtation.
In Experiment I, Ss were 60 children of two groups in two nursery schools. Their mean age in each group was 4: 11 and 5: 8. In the pretest and posttest, E presented three solids at random. Ss were required to anticipate the rotation and development of surfaces and draw it.
The experimental conditions were: (a) D (Development): Ss unfold a solid.(b) O (Observation): E unfolds a solid and Ss observe it.(c) RI (Result Information): E explains the relation between a solid and its development figuri.
The main results were: (1) In the posttest, the dra- wing scores for D were significantly higher than those for RI. The drawing scores for D were higher tha those for O.(2) In the posttest, the proportion of the static image for D (4 year) was significantly lower than that for O (4 year) and for RI (4 year). The proportion of the static image for RI (5 year) was significantly higher than that for D (5 year) and for O (5 year)
In Experiment II, Ss were 40 children in a nursery school. Their mean age was 5: 7. In pretest, posttest and tranfertest, E presented a solid. Ss were required to anticipate the rotation and development of surfaces and to constitute it with three sorts of paper.
The experimental conditions were: (a) IA (Imitative Action) Ss imitate the rotation and development of surfaces.(b) AO (Active Observation): Ss touch the sides of a solid and E unfolds the solid. Ss observe it.(c) D (Development) Ss unfold a solid.(d) DC (Development figure Constitution): Ss observe rotation and development of surfaces, and constitute its development figure.
The main results were: (1) In the posttest, the scores for IA were significantly higher than those for DC. The scores for IA were higher than those for D and for AO.(2) In the posttest, the correct numbers of anticipation of development figure for IA were significantly higher than those for AO, D and DC.
From the above results, it was considered that (1) foe preschool children, it was possible to form the transformational anticipatory image (2) imitative action facilitating the formation of the transformational anticipatory image.

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Purpose: This study aimed at verifying the effect of an audience on memory of verbal materials under task-oriented and ego-oriented motivational instructions.
Method: This experiment consisted of 3 sessions which included same number of trials of short-term memory tasks. In 2nd session, a classmate of each subject was intruded as an assistant of the experimenter. The yariation of short-term memory and electrical skin conductance as a measure of arousal leyel was examined under task-oriented, ego-oriented and control (without intrusion of a classmate) situations.
Results: The influence of an audience (classmates) under 2 motivational situations were compared with those of control situation. The intrusion of a classmate under task-oriented situation increased memory and GSR. But under ego-oriented situation the intrusion of a classmate did not bring about such remarkable variation.

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This experiment aimed at investigating the role of communication in the memory process. For this purpose, cooperative recall was compared with individual recall.
The results were: 1) In the cooperative recall after an individual recall, facilitating effect was found.(Exp. 1) 2) Cooperative recall was superior to individual recall. The difference was found in the former part of learning process and in the latter part of a memorized poem.(Exp. II) 3) In cooperative recall the focus strategy was shown. The focus strategy meant that problem points (focuses) were found through communication, and then solved through cooperative searching. Therefore, in cooperative recall it became clear that memory process, communication process and cognitive process were combined.

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The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effects of overtraining on the subsequent discrimination shift learnings by using existence or nonexistence of an antecedent relevant dimension in the subsequent discrimination learning as an experimental variable in a concurrent discrimination situation, in which subjects were concurrently given training of a discrimination task A on some trials and task B on other trials.
A 5×2 factorial design was used, incorporating shift types (W, P, HEDS-I, HEDS-II and EDS) and degree of overtraining (NOT and OT). The subjects were 60 Kindergarten children with a mean age of four years and one month, and a mean IQ: II5.3. They were assigned to one of ten groups of some age, sex and IQ. Group NOT was trained on two independent discrimination tasks to a criterion of five successive correct responses. Group OT were given an additional 24 overtraining trials after reaching criterion. Immediately after completing the original learning, all subjects of every group were divided then into five subgroups: W, P, HEDS-I, HEDS-II and EDS. Group W was run under whole reversal shift learning condition where both _??_ discrimination task and _??_ discrimination task were reversed. Group P was run under partial reversal shift learning condition where _??_discrimination task was reversed, and _??_ discrimination was unreversed. Group HEDS-I Was run half extradimensional shift learning condition-I where _??_discrimination task was unreversed and _??_discrimination task was replaced by a new discrimination task (_??_=discrimination task). Group HEDS-II wag run under half extradimensional shift learning condition-II where _??_discrimination was reversed, and _??_ discrimination task was replaced by a new discrimination task (_??_=discrimination task). Group EDS was run under extradimensional shift learning condition where both _??_discrimination task and _??_ discrimination task were replaced by new discrimiantion tasks (_??_=discrimination task and discrimination task). Training of the shift phase continued to a criterion of five successive correct responses. Reinforcement was provided by yellow light and buzzer for correct responses or the experimenters saying “Hit”.
The following were the main results.
(1). Group W showed a tendency for the reversal learning to be facilitated by overtraining, but the effect of overtraining did not reach the statistically significant level of 5%. The reversal learhing of Group P was delayed by over training, but the reversal learning of Group HEDS-II was facilitated by overtraining.
(2). The extradimensional shift learning of Group HEDS-II was facilitated by overtraining. Group HE DS-I showed a tendency for the extradimensional shift learning to be facilitated by overtraining, but the effect of overtraining did not reach the statistically significant level of 5% (see FIG. 3). The extradimensional shift learning of Group EDS was neither facilitated nor delayed by overtraining.
(3). The learning process on _??_ discrimination task in Group W was significantly different from the same task in Group P under overtraining condition, but there was no difference in the learning process on the same task between Group W and Group Punder nonovertraining condition. There were no differences in the learning Process on _??_= discrimination task among Groups HEDS-I, HEDS-II, EDS under both overtraining and nonovertraining conditions.
These results demonstrate that the existence or nonexistence of an antecedent relevant dimension in the subsequent discrimination shift learning is an important factor as a determinant of the effect of overtraining on the subsequent discrimination learning, and that overtraining facilitates not only areversal shift learning but also an extradimensional shift learning when an antecedent relevant dimension remains as a relevant dimension in a subsequent discrimination learning.

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The purpose of this study was to find the effects of perceptual cues on the construction of children's categorical schemes in classification task on the basis of their memory performance on picture matrix.
Method: Stimulus materials were a matrix array of 16 pictures (4 categories by 4 members). First, 156 children of age 5 to 8 were required to perform a task of filling three blank spaces in 4×4 picture matrix. Based on the performance scores of the matrix task, the cognitive development of children were assessed at three levels (I, II, III). Then children memorized a matrix, and were tested by free recall and reconstruction method after a five-minute delay. Items in matrix were arranged either in categorically regular or at random, and redundant (same color cues for category members) or non-redundant.
Results were as follows;
1) The effects of regularity of arrangement on memory of matrix (regular or at random) were found out on the subjects of five and six, but not on subjects of seven and eight.
2) Color cues for a common member of a category facilitated the memory of matrix in subjects belonging to II cognitive level and in older subjects belonging to III cognitive level (III2 cognitive level).
3) Correlation beween free recall and reconstruction were significant only for the subjects in III 2 cognitive level and non-significant for other subjects.

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J. Piaget has found the origin of knowledge neither in sensorial nor perceptual data, but in “action”, as. H. Werner has found it in “Aktionsding”. Recently T. Inui et al.(1978) presented the following formula coordinating their theories.
Perceptual Image=f (Structure of Perceptual Activity-Object itself) This study investigated developmentally the following problems based on their formula. The hypotheses are as follows.
1. As the patterns of Perceptual Activity (PA) to an Obiect are varied among subjects, Visual Images vary according to PA.
2. What is the pattern of PA according to the correct recognition of an Object?
3. When we give to the other subjects the pattern of PA obtained in the above examination of correct recognition, their recognition will become correct.
4. On the hypothesis 1 we examine infants' visual images from 3 to 6 years of age.
5. At that time whether does the phenomenon concerning the “egocentrism” appear or not?
The Main results are: Hypothesis 1. 3. 4: adult subjects proved the hypothesis in the task of a geometrical figure. In hypothesis 2 we obtained the structure of visual scanning which could be considered as mathematical displacement group. Hypothesis 5: we found the phenomenon proper to infants and named it the “Reversed Visua Reccgnition (RV R)” concerning the direction of movement. We got the facts that (a) RVR appeared frequently in 3 year-old infants unde the control of PA,(b) RVR decreased gradually according to age, and almost all first 6-year-old infants reported the correct recognition; and (c) RVR did not decrease when subjects were forbidden their PA.

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The purpose of this research was to know how students treat the feedback of their test-results, and to find the effective ways of feedback.
First, 202 high school students were asked about how they treat the feedback of their English and mathematics test-result using questionnaires made of free descriptions and a 5 point-rating scale.
The result showed more than 88% of the students in English, and more than 75% in mathematics checking only their percentage results or just looking through their mistakes. While only less than 19% of the students in English. and less than 25% in mathematics often used feedback for the review.
This result suggested that the students made little profit of the feedback of the test-results.
Second, the effects of several types of feedback were experimentally examined on 294 high school students. Experiments were divided in 3 parts. The effect of the feedback was measured by the difference between pre-test and post-test comparing exprimental group with control group. Both exp. group and cont. group were divided into sub-groups in accordance with the pre-test.
In Experiment 1 using English, the exp. group were given a “check list” after pre-test. The list indicated the areas of each problem of the test so that the student could check the areas needing to be reviewed.
The result showed no significant differences between exp. group (n=29) and cont. group (n=29).
In Experiment 2, the check list were given to the exp. group but the post-test was previously announed to both exp. group and cont. group.
The result showed that exp. group (n=40) recorded significantly higher progress than cont. group (n=41) in school A using mathematics. The difference had significant tendency in school B using English (exp. group: n=36, cont. group: n=38). In the exp. group of school A, the low-achieved group recorded significantly higher progress than the high-achieved group. The difference had significant tendency in school B.
In Experiment 3 using English,“Individual short test” were recycled for the exp. group after the pre-test. In this test, the students themselves decided the areas of the problems of the test they would take. The feedbacks of the test-results are carefully arranged avoiding negative expression. The post-test was announced to both exp. group and cont. group.
The result showed that the exp. group (n=41) recorded higher progress than the cont. group (n=40), and its difference had significant tendency. The low-achieved group recorded significantly higher progress than high-achieved group in both exp. group and cont. group. After the individual short tests, about 85% of the students reported positive impressions (feeling at ease, a desire to continue etc.).
The limits of this research and further problems were discussed. The factors of the effective feedback of the test-results were suggested as follows
a) To give adequate informaton;
b) To have the students considering the review as useful;
c) To reduce the unwillingness of the review.
It is suggested that the combination of the factors would be more effective especially for the low achievers.

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The present study was to examine the development of conditional reasoning ability, which characterizes adolescent thinking. The problems consisted of four basic types of conditional reasoning, each type containing five contents of propositions. The four types of problems examined were: affirming the antecedent (AA), denying the consequent (DC), denying the antecedent (DA), and affirming the consequent (AC). The five contents were: causal, factual, arbitrary, hypothetical, and abstract, inserted in every conditional sentence. Forty problems were uscd in all, giving two problems to the twenty combinations of four types and five contents. 405 subjects were picked up from 3rd and 5th graders of elementary school, lst and 3rd graders of junior high school, and lst year of college, and they made experiment I.
Main results were as follows:
1. The four types of problems had distinctly different developmental traits, in AA, 80% of the 3rd graders of elementary school gave the correct responses, and a tendency for increasing ability was shown from this period onward. In DC, about 70% of all subjects gave the correct responses. However, a tendency for increasing ability was not shown. On the other hand, in DA-AC problems, only 30-40% of the college students performed correctly. Thus, in terms of increasing number of correct responses, the order of problem types was AA, DC, and DA and AC. This finding was similar to previous findings on the development of conditional reasoning ability.
2. The coefficients of correlation between problem types were calculated in each grade. From this analysis, it was found that there were negative correlations between AA and DC, and DA and AC except for college students (-.15-.55). This indicated that subjects who were good performers on the former types (AA, DC) were poor performers on the later (DA, AC), and vice versa.
But, with college students, these coefficients were positive (.12-.18).
3. An examination was also made of the contents used for each problem type in order to determine whether some contents were more difficult than others. It was revealed that factual and arbitrary contents were easier than hypothetical and abstract ones, and causal content was easy in AA and DC, but relatively difficult if DA and AC.
4. The error analysis indicated that logically non-sense responses were no longer used by students if the 1st grade of junior high school. Thus, it was suggested that the period of transition from a lower to a higher stage in thinking occurred at about this time.
Experiment II was designed to clarify the meaning of error patterns I (A-B pattern, A-C pattern) found in experiment I; the A-B pattern indicated a probable inference, and the A-C pattern had been considered as a result of a biconditional inference. Two kinds of training, implication (I) and verbal representation (VR), were given to the Ss.
Main results were as follows:
1. With the subjects classified in the A-C pattern, the training effect of VR was nil. But, in the I condition, the correct responses of DA and AC increased significantly. It therefore appeared that these subjects had a reasoning ability, but had mistaken conditional sentences.
2. With the subjects in the A-B pattern, the training effects of VR and I were obtained if DA and AC, and AC, respectively. Thus, it was suggested that this pattern showed an incomplete understanding of representation of conclusions, but it is believed that it was due in part to a misunderstanding of implication.

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