In the recent Chinese crude drug markets, two types of Huangqi in Chinese derived from different Leguminosae plants group are circulated; one is Astragali Radix (Mianhuangqi) which is the root of Astragalus membranaceus or A. mongholicus, and the other is Hedysari Radix (Jinqi), the root of Hedysarum polybotrys. Since the differences in quality between Mianhuangqi and Jinqi have not been clarified, Jinqi is used as a substitute for Mianhuangqi in medical treatment. Our herbological study revealed that both types of Huangqi have been used from ancient times, and that Astragali Radix was pharmacologically used for warming and supplementing, while Hedysali Radix was used for cooling and supplementing under the name of Baishuiqi. The root of Astragalus spp. was defined as higher-grade Huangqi in the Song dynasty. On the other hand, the name of Hedysari Radix was changed from Baishuiqi to Jinqi in the period of the Republic of China. Our study concluded that these two drugs have been treated independently from ancient times, as warming or cooling supplements.

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Medical Pharmacy, as an objective of pharmaceutical education, was the driving force in the reform of the Japanese pharmacists? education carried out in 2004.　On the website of the Japanese Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare, it states that we must extend the pharmaceutical education term with the objectives of developing medical technology and promoting the separation of the dispensary from the medical clinic. However, these objectives are not explained sufficiently. There are four main contentions with this reform of education.　First is whether students should study this area in a bachelor's or a master's course. Second is what pharmacists should be. Third is when and whom should receive the examinees' qualification. Fourth is whether pharmaceutical education equals education of pharmacists or not. These contentions had been discussed for a long period, but medical pharmacy was more important than these contentions. In other words, the basis of the reform was medical pharmacy, and answers to these contentions were decided by achievements of medical pharmacy. What is medical pharmacy?　It was an ideology of the pharmacists' action group of United States origin, and it came under the influence of trends of medicine, for example, patient-oriented care and cooperation among medical staff. Verification of the contribution of medical pharmacy to the reform of the Japanese pharmacists' education may suggest factors of change in pharmacists in recent years.　Moreover, it will provide a clue to solve the social meaning of the pharmacist.

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The Japanese Pharmacopoeia defines the original plants of the crude drug Akebiae Caulis (Mutong in Chinese) as Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Decne. and A. trifoliata (Thunb.) Koidz.　However, in China, the original plants of Mutong vary greatly and include Clematidis Armandii Caulis (Chuan-Mutong in Chinese) derived from Ranunculaceae and Aristolochiae Manshuriensis Caulis (Guan-Mutong in Chinese) derived from Aristolochiaceae. We have reported that Akebia plants are the authentic original plants from ancient times, but it was not clear how Mutong derived from other plants has come into use.　In this paper, we investigated the historical changes in the use of Mutong derived from Lardizabalaceae, Vitaceae, GuanMutong, and Chuan-Mutong. We found that the product derived from Akebia plants, which had been the authentic Mutong, was replaced by Chuan-Mutong in the late Qing dynasty.　Mutong derived from Vitaceae was used as a substitute for Akebia plants between the Song and the early Qing dynasties.　We also found that GuanMutong, a crude drug characterized by bitterness, came into use from the early Qing dynasty and replaced Mutong derived from Vitaceae.

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The cinchona plant is an important source of quinine. This research has been focusing on the history of cinchona cultivation in Japan.　As part of the study, this paper reports on cinchona cultivation efforts made in Taiwan under Japanese colonial rule from the Taisho Era to the early Showa Era (approximately 1912-1935). At this time, cinchona cultivation began in 1912 at the Forest Experiment Station of the Office of the Governor General and the Experimental Forest of Tokyo Imperial University.　The cultivation yielded fairly good results. However, they eventually failed to harvest cinchona bark. In 1928, Daigaku Numata began cinchona cultivation at the Experimental Forest of Kyoto Imperial University. 　He improved the cultivation method and led the cultivation at the Experimental Forest to a successful conclusion. Meanwhile, Hoshi Pharmaceutical Company began cinchona cultivation in 1922 and produced the first batch of quinine in Japan in 1934.　Takeda Pharmaceutical Company and Shionogi & Co., Ltd. had also begun cinchona cultivation in Taiwan by 1935. A new era emerged wherein experimental forests of imperial universities, pharmaceutical companies and so on managed cinchona cultivation and quinine production as a business.

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In Kampo medicine, a decoction is prepared by boiling small pieces of the ingredients enough for one day's dosage.　The prepared liquid is separated into two or three parts for each dose. The Hejijufang adopted the Zhusanfa, which is the method of preparing the decoction using powdered ingredients of prescriptions rather than pieces. In the Zhusanfa, the dosage is determined from the premixture of the powdered ingredients. In the Zhusanfa, although the whole quantities of prescriptions are written with the ancient weight unit, the notation of the dosage is indicated by the current weight unit, Qian. The dosage was regulated for weights and measures in the Song dynasty. In contrast, preparation methods using small pieces and powder were both adopted in Li Dongyuan's medical books. In Li Dongyuan's treatments, decoctions using small pieces were administrated for acute diseases expected to respond to changes in dosage. Decoctions using powder（the Zhusanfa) were adapted to long-term administration.

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Japanese valerian is a herbal medicine with a long history that continues from the first edition of the Japanese Pharmacopoeia (JPI) (1886) to the present JPXVI (2011). This research focuses on the standards and test methods of this item in JPI (1886) to JPXVI (2011), and the pharmacological evaluation of this item in Japan was considered while comparing it with the result of transitions of the standards and test methods of European valerian (valerian root) in the United States Pharmacopoeia (USP) described in a previous report and in the British Pharmacopoeia (BP). It can be said that the standards and tests of this item in today's JPXVI (2011) have been able to maintain quality. However, based on comparison with today's USP and BP, the JPXVI (2011) standards and tests do not reflect the surprising progress in pharmacology that has been made in recent years and do not sufficiently reflect the circumstances of this item that are clarified to some extent in the surrounding information. For these reasons, the pharmacological evaluation of this item in the JP is considered satisfactory. It is thought that there is relatively low demand for this item in Japan compared with the demand for valerian root in Europe and America. That is, it is thought that this item is not highly evaluated in Japan compared to the pharmacological evaluation of European valerian (valerian root) in Europe and America. It was found that the pharmacological evaluation in Japan has not been high in recent years although this item received high appraisal before World War II worldwide in terms of quality. However, there are expectations for higher evaluations in the future in respect to its effect and safety as a natural medicine.

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Knowledge about herbs has been one of the most basic matters in medication since antiquity. From ancient India, the Caraka-samhita (hereinafter, CS) and the Susruta-samhita (SS) are commonly known as the two great works of Ayurvedic literature. These works are also regarded as relating to the Bower Manuscript (Bower Ms.), which in turn was influenced by Indian Buddhism. The second part of the Bower Ms., which is called the Navanitaka, is intended to provide a standard manual of the foremost medical formulae as approved items. The aim of this paper is to throw light on the Navanitaka's description of haritaki, which is considered to correspond to the Terminalia chebula, Retz. The aim of this plant is also listed in the present Indian Pharmacopoeia. This study begins by outlining CS and SS. Next, the construction of the Bower Ms. and its contents, as well as the formation of the Navanitaka, are explained. Finally, the composition and contents of the 11 th chapter of the Navanitaka, which is a monograph of haritaki (Haritaki-kalpa), are shown. This herb has seven kinds of names and five kinds of taste excluding saltiness. It also enables the excretion of waste in its digestion and forms prescriptions in which molasses, honey and soup of grapes are applied together to enhance its medicinal action. It is noteworthy that these descriptions of haritaki are found in the 26 th and 27 th chapters of CS. According to the Haritaki-kalpa, the herb can also be applied to various symptoms due to the disorder of three humors as a depurative or as a tonic for perpetual youth and longevity. For these reasons, haritaki is explained as the most excellent herb in the Haritaki-kalpa.

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