Modern physical education appeared in Europe at the end of the eighteenth century. In this article, we trace the developmental process of “instruction theory” in European physical education studies and sports science from the end of the eighteenth century to the present in order to consider the relationship between the didactics of physical education and contemporary training science. Focusing on general theories of instruction, we examine the nature of science and make proposals for the restructuring of training science that could be useful in practice.
These considerations revealed the following points:
1) In Europe, the theory of instruction in physical education differentiated into Didaktik (didactics), Methodik (methodology), and Bewegungslehre (movement theory) in the 1950s and 1960s.
2) In the end of the 1960s, “Trainingslehre” (theory of training in competitive sport) appeared in Eastern Europe. In the 1970s, the theory of training based on induction from practical experience became a scientific discipline, and was applied as a general theory to various fields such as physical education, recreational sport, and physical activity for health. As a result, the name was changed to “Trainingswissenschaft” (training science). In this way, training science began to incorporate the didactics of physical education.
3) When attempting to restructure training science as an interdisciplinary applied science, we face an insoluble aporia. That is, human movement as a subject of study is so complex that any natural scientific approach needs to be divided infinitely into sub-disciplines, making it more difficult to integrate as an interdisciplinary science.
4) In order to overcome this problem, it is necessary to derive a general theory from practice, rather than from principles of established science. We propose the term coaching science to describe this new theory.

抄録全体を表示

In recent decades, much evidence for women's sports in the ancient world has been uncovered. In ancient Greece, men concentrated on politics, wars, athletics, and the like, whereas desirable womanly qualities were considered to be beauty, modesty and obedience. Accordingly, no women's events were included in the ancient Olympic Games. It is said that married women were not allowed to be present at Olympia during the games, although unmarried women were permitted to watch the games. Except in militaristic Sparta, athletics were usually for male citizens.
However, in the festivals of Hera, only girls could compete in foot-races. Like the boys, Spartan girls paraded naked in the presence of the men and participated in foot-races, wrestling, discus and javelin. Tryphosa, but also her two sisters, competed in and won foot-races in several major athletic festivals, but not at Olympia. Although married women could not compete in the Olympics, they could win Olympic victories in the equestrian events. Thus it is certain that women did participate in athletics. This paper examines the participation of women in sports at the Olympic Games and the festivals of Hera.
Except for the priestess of Demeter Chamyne, married women were forbidden to attend the Olympics as spectators. Unmarried women and girls were also excluded from watching the games. In order to prevent bribery, trainers had to present themselves naked and undergo physical examinations. Unmarried women competed every four years in foot-races at the festivals of Hera held at Olympia. Some have suggested that the Heraian games became Panhellenic, but there is no historic evidence for this. The local festivals in which only women and girls were able to participate took place separately from the Olympics.
Kyniska of Sparta was the first women's Olympic victor in the four-horse chariot race. Agesilaus persuaded his sister Kyniska to enter a chariot race at Olympia and showed that Olympic chariot victories could be won by wealth and not by manly courage. However, it is certain that Kyniska was exceedingly ambitious to enter the Olympic Games, winning twice in all. However Kyniska's victories did not lead to the spreading of women's sports or to improvement of women's rights.

抄録全体を表示

Systematization and classification of exercise elements in Artistic Gymnastics (Systematik der Turnübungen im Kunstturnen) is valuable for training practice and evaluation of competition exercises.
The purpose of this study related to Artistic Gymnastics was to analyze the systematic positioning of new exercise elements (Kehr with 1/1 turn around one arm, Wende backward with 1/1 turn around one arm, Wende forward with 1/1 turn around one arm) in the Kehr and Wendeswing Element Group for the Pommel Horse.
To achieve this purpose, the following three areas were considered:
1. An explanation of genetic or phenomenological-morphological methodology (Kaneko, 2009) in the field of Sport Movement and Behavior: Kaneko's theory can be classified roughly into analysis of movement structure and analysis of movement learning. The theory of movement structure contains three disciplines. In this study, “archaeological analysis” (Kaneko, 2007) and systematic analysis of the above new exercise elements were done.
2. Archaeological analysis of new exercise elements in Artistic Gymnastics: The method of Archaeological analysis is based upon Foucault's Archaeology (Foucault, 1969). The purpose of archaeological analysis is to show the “structure”, in this case meaning a cognitive framework, i.e., the form of unconscious framework used for individual perception and thought. In this study, the historical and socio-cultural premises of the creation of new exercise elements in Artistic Gymnastics were clarified.
3. Systematic analysis of the above three new exercise elements on the Pommel Horse and a proposal for an exact description of these elements: Systematic analysis showed a relationship between the three new elements and other older elements. Furthermore, precise definitions and names for these new elements were proposed.
The present findings will provide a basis for objective evaluation of Pommel Horse competition exercises by judges and a guideline for training of male gymnasts. As a result of this study, the positioning of older elements within the systematic framework was modified, and the basis for positioning of elements created after the 1970's was constructed.

抄録全体を表示

The traditional Japanese game in which players hit a wooden disk known as a hama with wooden sticks is considered to be derived from gittyô, which is believed to have originated from dakyu, which is believed to be derived from the stick game that was played in western Asia in ancient times. Therefore, traditional Japanese stick games and Western polo have the same origin.
In Kagoshima Prefecture, the game is called hamanage (literally, “disk-throw”), and it has been passed down in its traditional form through the Satsuma clan, having been performed by the children of samurai class in the old educational system (or gojû kyôiku) widely practiced since the Edo period. Today, the Kagoshima City Hamanage Preservation Society (Kagoshima-shi Hamanage Hozonkai), the Kajiki Town Association of Old Age Clubs (Kajiki-chô Rôjin-Kurabu Rengôkai), and the National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya (NIFS) set each of the playing rules, which have been compiled along traditional lines.
The present study investigated the actual conditions of the Satsuma game of hamanage, focusing on Kajiki Town (Aira County). The sources used included mainly pictures and interviews with members of the Kajiki Town Association of Old Age Clubs collected by investigations, and game rule books edited by each organization.
In Kajiki Town, the Association of Old Age Clubs set the original rules of hamanage using modern elements while considering the safety of the older people playing these games, and a hamanage meeting has been held as a part of the New Year events since 1980. It can be said that the hamanage played in Kajiki is an exciting and traditional culture activity passed down since ancient times, and illustrates the ideal role of traditional sports in local areas.

抄録全体を表示

Rugby union football (rugby), which originally developed in England, is a sport that has spread widely to many parts of the world through its association with similar types of football, such as rugby league football, popular mainly in Northern England and Australia. The International Rugby Board (IRB), the subject of this report, globally controlled the sport as the International Federation from 1995. At that time, rugby had attracted the attention of media conglomerates, which controlled the global media market, was part of the content of their satellite TV services, as was the case for other sports. Perfect Rugby Products was the first professional competition and media product in the rugby union world. The former dominion unions, which were members of the IRB, developed the products by receiving massive financial aid from News Corporation Ltd., one of the media conglomerates. This led to the fully-fledged commercialization and professionalization of rugby. However, this was not the only achievement of Perfect Rugby Products, as their spectacular game format came under scrutiny of the IRB, which was then reconsidering the “definition of rugby” on a global scale. The present study reappraises Perfect Rugby Products by addressing the processes of development of the IRB's strategies and policies, and explores the relationship between Perfect Rugby Products, News Corporation Ltd., and the IRB. We analyzed the minutes of the meetings of the IRB from the viewpoint of the standardization of rugby in order to highlight the intrinsic mechanism and dynamism of the IRB. This revealed that firstly, in the late 1990s, the development of the IRB Playing Charter and related policies of the IRB globally promoted the standardization of rugby and enabled stable management/control of the game, centering on the IRB. Next, in this standardization process, the IRB altered the spectacular game format of Perfect Rugby Products. This meant that the IRB, in the environment of globalization of rugby that was inseparable from commercialization, along with the intervention of News Corporation Ltd., did not relinquish power to constitute the game but also placed Perfect Rugby Products under its control. It is considered that this provides an opportunity to reconsider the relationship between media conglomerates and transnational sports constitutions, which is an issue that has not been addressed in previous studies, as typified in the concept of the “media-sport production complex” (Maguire, 1994).

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this study was to investigate the kinematic characteristics of World and Japanese elite 110-m hurdlers during 1-cycle motion in relation to running velocity and leg length. Twenty-nine male hurdlers (SB: 12.92-14.37 s) participated. The motions from touchdown of the lead leg at the 6th hurdle (1st step) to touchdown of the takeoff leg at the 7th hurdle (4th step) were videotaped using a digital VTR camera (60 Hz), and two-dimensional coordinates were calculated based on calibration marks. The motions from touchdown of the takeoff leg at the 7th hurdle to touchdown of the lead leg at the 7th hurdle (1st step) were videotaped using two high-speed VTR cameras (200-300 Hz), and converted to two-dimensional coordinates after calculation of the three-dimensional coordinates using a DLT method. Kinematic parameters were calculated, including step length, step frequency, angles and angular velocities of the shank and thigh, and durations of the support and airborne phases. Stepwise multiple regression analysis was conducted with kinematic parameters as dependent variables, and with running velocity and leg length as independent variables at p<.05. The results were as follows: (1) Faster hurdlers achieved a higher step frequency with less range of thigh motion of the takeoff leg during the 2nd step. (2) The 3rd step played a role in adjusting the step length and preparing for hurdling, especially in hurdlers with a shorter leg length when preparing to increase the vertical GRF in the 4th step. (3) The allocation of time from takeoff at the 4th step to touchdown at the 2nd step was dependent on leg length. (4) Faster hurdlers achieved smaller vertical displacement of CG during the 1st step by shortening the support time to keep the position of the thigh perpendicular at the 2nd step. These results show that faster hurdlers achieved shorter durations of 1-cycle motion because of the increasing in horizontal CG velocity during the shorter support time at the 2nd step.

抄録全体を表示

It is well known that junior and senior high school athletes who participate in team activities face zasetsu (a Japanese word meaning setback, conflict, or disappointment) many times. Some give up sports activities as a result, whereas others overcome zasetsu and continue to be active in their respective teams. The purpose of the present study was to grasp the process by which young male athletes overcome zasetsu. The subjects were all 18-year-old freshmen (59 males) who had reached national level in their sports and had been admitted to their individual colleges on the strength of their sport performance. All had belonged to their respective teams for more than three years while at junior and/or senior high school. The study was conducted using an open-ended questionnaire in the second week of April, at which time the subjects would still have clear memories of their previous sports activities, being unaffected by any experiences at college. Using the KJ method, we analyzed qualitatively the components of zasetsu, the subjects' state of mind when suffering from zasetsu, and the process by which they overcame it. It was concluded that the process of overcoming zasetsu in sports activities involved an improvement of cooperative autonomy accompanied by a conflict with regard to whether or not the subjects continued their sports activities, when they did not achieve their goals. This concept might be generally applicable in view of its conceptual consistency with former reports, and the fact that our results were based on a sufficient number of cases.

抄録全体を表示

Purpose: The present study was conducted to clarify the effect of physical activity (PA) at relatively moderate intensity (RMI) during daily life on body weight (BW), percentage body fat (%Fat), submaximal aerobic capacity, and leg extension power (LEP).
Methods: Sixty women (aged 57.2±7.6 yr), who were participating in a health exercise training course, were studied. To determine the duration of PA at RMI in each subject, data derived from the double product break point (DPBP) and use of a pedometer with a uniaxial accelerometer (LC; Lifecorder, Kenz) were used. Since the LC can automatically determine the exercise intensity (on a 0-9 scale) during PA with its original algorithm, we defined the exercise intensity corresponding to DPBP as RMI, that above this DPBP equivalent as relatively vigorous intensity, and that below this DPBP as relatively light intensity. The exercise training course was carried out once a week for twelve weeks. The program consisted of lectures on exercise and nutrition, and exercise training. Statistical analysis was carried out to examine the relationship between LC data and parameters of interest, such as changes in BW, %Fat, metabolic equivalents at DPBP (METs@DPBP), and LEP per lean body mass (LEP/LBM).
Results: Stepwise regression analysis showed that the changes in BW and %Fat were significantly affected by the values of BW and %Fat at the beginning of the course, and also total PA energy expenditure (p<0.001, respectively). The degree of METs@DPBP change was significantly affected by the total number of steps per day and the duration of PA at RMI (p<0.001). The degree of change in LEP/LBM was significantly affected by its initial value (p<0.001).
Conclusion: The present results demonstrate that PA volume, but not exercise intensity, has an impact on BW and %Fat. In addition, it is suggested that the duration of PA at a relatively moderate intensity is crucial for improvement of METs@DPBP.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this study was to identify the relationship between muscle morphological characteristics and joint torque exertion ability during movements simulating speed skating in sprint speed skaters. In 10 junior and 9 senior elite male skaters who participated in the 500-m race, the cross-sectional areas (CSA) of the right thigh and torso muscles were measured using magnetic resonance imaging. Skaters performed two dry skating tests (single leg skate jump and side-jump) on a tartan track, and were videotaped using two synchronized high-speed video cameras (250 fps) with the DLT technique during the tests. The ground reaction forces (GRF) of the support right leg were measured using a force platform (500 Hz). The GRF and three-dimensional coordinates of the segment endpoints were determined in order to calculate the maximal joint torques in the lower limb using an inverse dynamics approach. Although no significant difference in the CSA of the thigh was observed between the junior and senior groups, the CSA of the torso in the senior group was significantly greater than that in the junior group (p<0.01). In the torso, the CSAs of the psoas major and quadratus lumborum in the senior group were significantly greater than those in the junior group (p<0.01 and p<0.05, respectively). During the single leg skate jump, no significant difference in the maximal joint torques in the lower limb was observed between the junior and senior groups. In contrast, during the side-jump, the maximal hip abduction and internal rotation torques in the senior group were significantly greater than those in the junior group (p<0.05 and p<0.01, respectively), whereas maximal ankle plantar flexion torque in the junior group was significantly greater than that in the senior group (p<0.05). In addition, significant positive relationships were observed between the CSA of the quadratus lumborum and maximal hip abduction and internal rotation torques during the side-jump (p<0.05). These results indicate that senior top skaters increase their maximal joint torque exertion not at the distal joint but at the proximal joint in the lower limb. It was suggested that the CSAs of the psoas major and quadratus lumborum in the torso were important factors for development of performance in sprint speed skating.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether the speed of a thrown ball and differences in the effect of training in junior and senior high school baseball fielders at different developmental stages would be influenced by stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) training and resistance training. The subjects were classified into three groups: a SSC training group (dumbbell fly and medicine ball twist toss), a resistance training group (bench press and shaft twist), and a control group. Training was continued for three sessions per week for seven weeks. Moreover, the subjects performed purely concentric throw (CT) and rebound throw (RT) with medicine balls horizontal to the shoulder and body trunk twist movement, and the throw-index (CT: CT-index, RT: RT-index) and prestretch augmentation (Augmentation) were calculated.
The results were as follows: 1) The thrown ball speed increased significantly with SSC training in both the junior and senior high school baseball players. 2) The rate of increase in augmentation was higher in the junior than in the senior high school players. 3) The thrown ball speed increased significantly in the junior high school players who undertook resistance training, but not in the senior high school players. 4) The RT-index increased significantly in the junior high school players who undertook resistance training. 5) Augmentation was not increased significantly in the junior or senior high school players who undertook resistance training. These results suggest that the speed of a thrown ball increased significantly in junior and senior high school baseball players who undertook SSC training, and in junior high school players who undertook resistance training group. In addition, it was clarified that the effect of training differed according to developmental stage.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this study is to clarify the transformation that occurred in a school (ryuha) of swordsmanship in the domain of Ohmura, Nagasaki, at the end of the Tokugawa period in Japan, focusing particularly on the invitation extended to Saito Kannosuke, one of the leading instructors in the Shinto Munen-ryu (school of swordsmanship), in 1854. This paper was based on two historical materials: Shugyo-chu Shohan Houmei-roku (1849) and Kuyo Jitsuroku (1849-1855). Ohmura Sumihiro, the 12th domanial lord, and Egashira Kandayu, his chief retainer, were tacitly interested in the utility of swordsmanship in Ohmura, and actively proposed the transformation of a school of swordsmanship. In 1854, they invited Kannosuke to act as the swordsmanship instructor. Kannosuke was the third son of Saito Yakuro, a famous instructor of the Shinto Munen-ryu, who had established and managed the Rempeikan, a swordsmanship school (dojo) in Edo. Saito Yakuro's eldest son, Shintaro, had embarked on a journey throughout the domains of Japan in order to train and practice against other warriors there. These training and practice were known as kaikoku-shugyo. Shugyo-chu Shohan Houmei-roku indicates that Shintaro visited many feudal domains, including Ohmura. Ohmura Sumihiro and Egashira Kandayu then became interested in the technique of the Shinto Munen-ryu, which was taught at the Rempeikan, because they considered it to be useful for actual fighting. Afterwards, they succeeded in inviting Kannosuke in 1854, and he became the instructor employed by the domain of Ohmura. His duty was to promote the training of the Shinto Munen-ryu with warriors in Ohmura. In 1855, the Itto-ryu and Shinkage-ryu instructors of swordsmanship were dismissed and forced to stop their teaching. According to Kuyo Jitsuroku, this transformation from the Itto-ryu and the Shinkage-ryu to the Shinto Munen-ryu occurred over a period of six years (from 1849 to 1855). It was brought about to achieve the political ambitions of Ohmura Sumihiro and Egashira Kandayu.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of Hellison's TPSR model, which was developed in the USA. The validity of the TPSR model was examined in a physical education class for 3rd year male students at a public junior high school. To confirm the effect of the TPSR model, a single case experimental design was used, switching between baseline classes where the model was not implemented and test classes in which the model was implemented. Multiple types of qualitative and quantitative data were collected for the assignment. Specifically, the data comprised measurements of social skills, personal assessment based on Hellison's table of levels, observation of sample students' behavior, observational assessment of the class as a whole, class observation records written by both observers and teachers, and free-format comments made by the students.
The results were as follows:
1) The TPSR model tended to improve the students' social skills, increasing their self-awareness of responsible behavior and encouraging them to act responsibly.
2) The TPSR model tended to decrease inappropriate behavior (off-task behavior and destructive behavior) and increased appropriate behavior (positive social behavior and on-task behavior) by the sample students during class.
3) Because the influence of the learning task and the movement characteristic were larger than the model, the effect of the TPSR model could not be clearly confirmed as a key factor that stimulated students' learning activities.However, when the TPSR model was well utilized according to the learning task or the movement characteristic, it was suggested that its education value was considerable.

抄録全体を表示

This case study aimed to clarify the contents of mentoring in physical education lessons during practical teacher training at elementary school level.
First, the investigator observed the mentoring process involving Mentor X during physical education lessons, and completed field notes about conversations between Mentor X and student teachers at the physical education feedback meeting. These field notes were then classified by the KJ method to clarify the characteristics of the individual mentoring. We then selected and analyzed the characteristics that were typical of Mentor X's approach.
The following results were obtained: 1. The mentoring contents were classified from seven viewpoints: “facts in the lesson”, “activities of the student teacher”, “facts about children”, “understanding of teaching materials”, “ideas as a teacher”, “ideas of student teachers” and “ideas of the mentor”. 2. The mentor's seven viewpoints were classified into two broad categories, i.e. “lessons” and “ideas”, as well as three small categories, i.e. “student teachers”, “children” and “teaching materials”. 3. The mentor talked about “children” in order to change the student teachers' interest from their teaching to pupil learning during the lesson. 4. The mentor talked about “ideas” in order to change the student teachers' interest from pupil learning to lesson objectives and the intended teaching activities during the lesson. 5. The mentor talked about “teaching materials” in order to deepen the student teachers' understanding of teaching materials when able to share the lesson objectives with them.

抄録全体を表示

In order to examine the process of improvement in the walking ability of trans-tibia amputees fitted with lower-limb prostheses, this study carried out tests of free walking and fast walking movements in a man with a TSB trans-tibia prosthesis. The tests included measurements of hip flexion in a sitting position, walking speed, step length, step rate, supporting time and swing time. The measurements were carried out every two weeks, for a total of six times. Furthermore, in order to examine the connection between the subject's walking ability and his training programs, investigative records of the subject's muscle strengthening and rehabilitation with walking were also examined. The results showed that there were continuous improvements of muscle strength in both legs as a result of muscle training and rehabilitation during 11 weeks. An obvious improvement of walking ability was observed two weeks after the start of walking as muscle strength increased, and the differences between the two legs evident at the initial stage slowly decreased. This bilateral difference showed a conspicuous improvement from about the seventh week, and perfectly normal walking was achieved from the 11th week. However, these results need to be interpreted with caution because this was a case study involving only one subject with a lower-limb prosthesis, and was not a case in which the socket of the artificial leg had considerable non-conformity.

抄録全体を表示

The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of physical fitness in baseball pitchers and infielders focusing on variations in power output ability and stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) ability in field tests.
Twenty-five male university pitchers and 22 university infielders participated. They performed five kinds of jumping (Standing triple jump (STJ), Standing double leg triple jump (SDTJ), Standing long jump (SLJ), Counter movement jump (CMJ), 5 rebound jumps (RJ)), and five kinds of medicine ball throw (Overhead throw (OT), Back throw (BT), Push of upper limb (Push), Shoulder horizontal adduction (SHA) and Twist of trunk throw (Twist)).
Push, SHA and Twist were performed purely concentrically (concentric throw: CT) and with SSC movement (rebound throw: RT). These powers were assessed using the Throw index (Tauchi et al., 2006), and pre-stretch augmentations (Walshe et al., 1996) were calculated. It was found that: 1) OT, BT and SDTJ in pitchers were significantly higher than in infielders, and that there were significant correlations between pitched ball speed and OT, BT, and SDTJ. 2) Push RT-index and Push CT-index in infielders were significant higher than in pitchers, and significant correlations were found between thrown ball speed, batted ball speed and Push RT-index and Push CT-index in infielders. 3) SHA augmentation in infielders was significantly higher than in pitchers, and there was a significant correlation between thrown ball speed and SHA augmentation in infielders. 4) Twist of trunk power did not differ between pitchers and fielders.
These results indicate that baseball pitchers and infielders obtain different physical fitness characteristics through the differences in their movement forms and required abilities.

抄録全体を表示

This study sought to develop the Exercise and Sport Identification Scale (ESIS) by examining the relationship between identification and motivation in exercise and sport. In a pilot study, items were collected from 70 university students to develop the scale. In Study 1, the participants were 139 university students. Factor analysis revealed that the ESIS consisted of 25 items and had a structure comprising three factors: (1) positive evaluation, (2) modeling, and (3) emotional bond. The scale showed both reliability and validity. In Study 2, the participants were 243 university students. ANOVA was conducted to determine the relationship between the experience of exercise and sport identification and motivation (five types of regulation: non-, external, introjected, identified, and intrinsic). The results of ANOVA revealed that the scores for non-, introjected, identified, and intrinsic regulation differed significantly between students in the experience group and those in the non-experience group. Students with experience had significantly higher scores for these four significantly different types of regulation than students without experience. Following ANOVA, the correlations between the scores for the factors of the ESIS and the type of regulation were examined in a group of 124 students. This revealed that all of the identification factors were significantly related to the scores for identified and intrinsic regulation among males. The results of this study suggest that identification is partly related to autonomous motivation in exercise and sport.

抄録全体を表示

The present study focused on collective efficacy (CE) among Japanese athletes. First, in study I, we prepared a CE scale to gauge psychological performance among 144 university athletes by revising a psychological performance self-efficacy scale using principle component analysis. The scale rated CEs for patience, aggressiveness, volition for self-realization, volition for winning, self-control, ability to relax, concentration, confidence, strategic planning, cooperation, and total psychological performance. The scale's content validity, test-retest reliability, and internal consistency were ensured. In study II, the psychological performance CE scores did not differ by gender, and the CE scores for non-regular players were higher than those for regular players. Some psychological performance CE scores were related to cooperation a measurement of psychological competitive ability. Study III identified the relationship between psychological performance CE and group size (number of team members), demonstrating that some psychological performance CE prior to games was related to some aspect of psychological performance or athletes' evaluation of game performance. It was concluded that the psychological performance CE scale would be a useful measurement for assessing a team's CE in psychological performance. In the future, this could be a valuable approach for obtaining basic data on psychological performance CE and for using CE as an indicator of team status for intervention in effective team-building.

抄録全体を表示