Self-talk techniques are based on cognitive behavioral theories and are an important form of psychological intervention aimed at improving sports performance. Takayama and Takahashi (2017) reviewed self-talk techniques based on cognitive behavioral theories from the perspective of the second and third waves in cognitive behavioral therapy. However, a comprehensive understanding has yet to be achieved. Furthermore, there are insufficient theoretical explanations for these techniques in conventional research. Understanding the mechanisms underlying such techniques is important for determining their accountability in athletes, the reproducibility of effective techniques, and methods to overcome ineffective ones. In this context, we developed hypotheses to account for the mechanisms of self-talk techniques through a review of various cognitive behavioral theories in relation to improvement of sports performance. We also discuss recent research developments from the perspective of cognitive behavior.

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　Relationships between team identification, fan community identification and team-support behavior can be explained using organizational identification theory (Ashforth and Mael, 1989; Mael and Ashforth, 1992). According to Mael and Ashforth (1992), for an individual to identify with an organization, it must enhance the appeal of its collective identity through clear delineation of in-group and out-group memberships as a distinct organization, while increasing self-esteem through association with the organization’s prestige, meaning that the antecedent factors are the organization’s distinctiveness and prestige. Additionally, in social identity theory, which represents the theoretical background for organizational identification theory, support behavior is expressed for an organization that embodies the supporter’s identity. Accordingly, Mael and Ashforth (1992) consider organizational support to be a result factor. Based on the above, the aim of this study was to use organizational identification theory to clarify the relationships between team identification, fan community identification, and team-support behavior. Specifically, we developed a hypothetical model in which the factors of team distinctiveness and prestige were the antecedent factors and the non-transactional support behavior of fan engagement was the resulting factor. Data collected from spectators at a V. Premier League were used for verification. Analysis using the bootstrap method revealed that impact relationships were not found for all hypotheses. Nonetheless, certain relationships were found between leading and result factors, thus supporting the conclusion that organizational identification theory can be used to explain spectator support behavior.

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　The present study was performed to identify the characteristics responsible for injuries in senior high school judo clubs. Data were collected from the “Injury and Accident Mutual Aid Benefit System” provided by the Japan Sports Council. First, the injury occurrence rates by sex and grade were analyzed by the All Japan High School Athletic Federation, based on the number of judo club members. Then, the characteristics of the injuries were identified using the quantitative text analysis software package “KH Coder”.
　The main results were as follows:
　(1) The injury occurrence rate was highest in the 1st grade, less high in the 2nd grade, and lowest in the 3rd grade.
　(2) The quantitative text analysis revealed that descriptions were primarily available for head and neck injuries in boys and knee injuries in girls.
　(3) The most common descriptions were related to accidents during judo throws, especially in 1st grade boys. Furthermore, in relation to throwing techniques, many accidents in 1st graders occurred during randori (sparring), and in boys also during extensive throw training. Moreover, many accidents occurred during competition in 2nd and 3rd grader boys. In relation to throwing technique, injures during uke (throwing) were the most common, especially in the 1st grade and among boys.
　This comprehensive analysis of information has revealed the causes of accidents in judo, providing essential knowledge for safety in the sport. This emphasizes the importance of continuous investigation and analysis of judo-related accidents.

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　The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of decision making under a light stimulus on movement during a change of direction (COD). Twelve male soccer players performed 2 types of lightbased backward agility test (BAT): normal condition and pre-planned condition (BAT-PP). Their motions were videotaped using 2 high-speed cameras operating at 300 Hz for three-dimensional motion analysis. The time, step parameter, and each kinematic variable were compared to determine the differences between the BAT and BATPP. The results showed that the times for 5–13 m and 0–13 m in the BAT were slower than those in the BAT-PP. The velocity of the center of gravity at the lowest point of the velocity in the BAT was lower than that in the BATPP. During the pre-COD phase, the body inward lean angle, shoulder rotation angle, and pelvis rotation angle were all smaller in the BAT than in the BAT-PP. At the COD foot contact, foot placement in the left-right direction was shorter and knee flexion was greater in the BAT than in the BAT-PP. Furthermore, hip flexion during the deceleration phase, and shoulder and pelvis rotation during the acceleration phase were larger in the BAT than in the BAT-PP. Overall, these results may indicate that players who performed the BAT were required to maintain a posture that allowed them to turn to the left or right until the presentation of the light stimulus; therefore, their bodies were upright, and their trunks were facing the direction of approach before COD. Moreover, the knee joint flexed with a short distance to the left of the COD foot placement, the velocity of the center of gravity decreased with hip flexion, and the trunk rotated significantly to a new direction in the BAT.

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　The purpose of this study was to develop a calculation method (CL method) for camera parameters using feature points (known three-dimensional coordinates) outside the control volume, one feature point, and the geometric property of lines inside the control volume. The film process in this study was as follows: (1) the camera platform position and focal length that filmed the control volume well were selected; (2) without changing the camera platform position and focal length, cameras were panned and tilted to film the feature points outside the control volume (number of pictures = 5); (3) the camera platform joints were adjusted and fixed to the film control volume; and (4) the control volume was filmed by the cameras. From the pictures, the digitizer coordinates of the feature points and line edges were collected. Focal length and camera platform parameters (such as position and lean) were estimated with particle swarm optimization to minimize the sum of the reprojective errors of the feature points outside the control volume, one feature point inside the control volume, and the lines inside the control volume. The camera parameters at the moment of filming the control volume were calculated using the focal length and camera platform parameters. Three-dimensional coordinates as accuracy verification points (135 points) were reconstructed using the estimated camera parameters. RMS errors of the accuracy verification points in the CL method and a method developed in a previous study were 11.1 and 7.9 mm, respectively. These results show that the CL method can be adapted for the collection of three-dimensional coordinates.

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　The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence and characteristics of weekly hill walking in comparison with habitual flat walking in elderly people. The hill walkers in this study were members of a mountaineering group who did about 3.5 hours of hill walking more than twice a month, and the flat walkers were members of walking groups who went walking more than once a week. Both the hill walkers and flat walkers continued the exercise for more than 2 years and individuals over 50 were extracted and analyzed. The time for 1 walk was 1.5±0.8 hours. The frequency and exercise volume per week were 1 time (19 Mets· h/wk) for the hill walkers and 4 times (26 Mets· h/wk) for the flat walkers. The contents of the questionnaire survey were age, sex, the reason for starting each exercise, period of exercise, chronic diseases and changes in the subjective sense of well-being. It was found that the prevalence rates of chronic diseases were lower than the general average values for the same generation, and more than half of the subjects recognized positive changes in their subjective sense of well-being after starting these exercises in both groups. On the other hand, more people in the flat walking group than those in the hill walking group became aware of an increase in walking speed. In contrast, the prevalence rate of diabetes in the hill walkers was lower than that in the flat walkers, and a high percentage of hill walkers felt an improvement of knee pain and better physical strength. These differences were significant. In addition, the proportion of individuals who recognized psychological changes was higher in the weekly hill walkers. More specifically some items such as “I have a wider circle of friends”, “My life became richer”, and “I feel refreshed” showed high scores, and showed significant differences. In conclusion, these findings suggest that, in elderly people, 3.5 hours of weekly hill walking has potentially positive effects on some items related to health, physical fitness, and mental state in comparison with about 1.5 hours of flat walking 4 times a week.

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　The purpose of this study was to compare the ability to control elbow joint angle under conditions with and without imposed external load, and to obtain fundamental data on this issue. Fourteen male college students (21.4 ± 0.7 yr) participated in the experiment. The participants attempted to flex their elbow to a target angle with their eyes closed, with and without an external load. For the external load condition, 6 levels of external load starting at 10%1RM with 10% increments up to 60%1RM were applied. The target angles were 15º, 30º, 45º, 60º, and 90º. We calculated the difference between the target angle and the actual joint angle. It was found that, regardless of the external load, participants were able to control and grade their elbow joint angle to the various targets. For the 15º target, the absolute error was greater than for the 30º target. %iEMG of the biceps and triceps became smaller as the target angle increased, and %iEMG increased along with the external load. These findings suggest that an external load can not influence the ability to control the elbow joint angle.

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　This study attempted to clarify the factors responsible for the change in hand propulsive force when stroke frequency was changed in the crawl. Eight male swimmers performed five 20-m front crawls. The first trial involved maximal effort, and then the stroke frequency was controlled during the next 4 trials. The instructed stroke frequencies were 70%, 80%, 90%, and 100% of the stroke frequency in the maximal effort trial. To calculate the hand resultant force, the pressure acting on the palm and the dorsum of the hand were measured, and the product of the pressure difference and the hand plane area was defined as the hand resultant force. Since the hand propulsive force is the propulsion component of the hand resultant force, its value was calculated from the normal vector of the hand plane and its unit vector by three-dimensional motion analysis. Additionally, the propulsion ratio was calculated to show how effectively the hand resultant force acted as the hand propulsive force. These variables were compared with the average for 1 stroke cycle and each movement phase, respectively (glide, pull, and push). The results indicated that as the stroke frequency increased, the dorsum pressure value increased significantly to negative (η2 = 0.82, p <0.001). Also, an increase in the pressure difference between the palm and the dorsum resulted in an increase in the hand resultant force. In the push phase, the increase in the hand resultant force was directly related to the increase in the hand propulsive force. In the glide phase, not only the fluid force, but also the propulsion ratio increased. This was assumed to be because the ratio of the dorsal plane to the propulsion direction was increased while the hand was moving in a vertical direction and a lateral direction in addition to a forward direction. This was considered to allow the fluid force to act more effectively in the propulsive direction, leading to an increase in the hand propulsive force.

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　The purpose of this study was to investigate the acceleration motion of the hammer head during the turn phase in hammer throwers with record levels covering a wide range from the world’s best to Japanese student level. The characteristics of the acceleration motion of high-record throwers were also analyzed. Forty-four male throwers (throwing record, 80.50-44.17 m) participated in the study as subjects. Their throwing motions were videotaped on high-speed VTR cameras (250-300 fps), and three-dimensional coordinates were calculated using a DLT method. The kinematic parameters of the hammer, upper limbs and trunk were calculated, and the correlations between them and throwing record were examined. The fundamental factors clarified were as follows: (1) The higher the throwing record became, it was more evident that the hammer, the shoulder and the hip were pointed in the throwing direction at the moment of right foot contact (Ron), i.e. the starting point of hammer head acceleration. The more the hammer turned in the throwing direction at Ron, the greater the angular displacement of the hammer, shoulder and hip rotation became during the double support phase (DSP). (2) The higher the throwing record became, the angular displacement of shoulder rotation and the average angular velocity of shoulder rotation became greater at the Ron-lowest position of the hammer head (LP). (3) The higher the throwing record became, the maximum velocity of the left and right shoulder joint center on the horizontal plane and the angular velocity of the trunk back lean became higher at Ron-LP. (4) The higher the throwing record became, the angular displacement of the trunk right lean and the average angular velocity of the trunk right lean became higher at DSP. Therefore, it is considered that the hammer head acceleration motion of high-record hammer throwers is characterized by the body rotation and trunk lean at DSP.

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　The purpose of this study was to interpret the institutional characteristics of organizing sport enthusiasts from the viewpoint of 4 Japanese soccer players in Germany, based on the theoretical framework of the subjective theory of sport organization. In this study, the institution of soccer in Germany was determined to be one that enables the organization of its enthusiasts. By clarifying its institutional characteristics, we demonstrate the direction through which the Japan Football Association could create and transform the organization of enthusiasts.
　The methodology used for our analysis was the life story interview method; the life stories of 4 Japanese soccer players in Germany were constructed based on interviews, and the institutional characteristics of soccer in Germany as recognized by those players were interpreted.
　Our analysis showed that, compared with the institution of soccer in Japan, the following are institutional characteristics of soccer in Germany as reflected in these players’ life stories: (1) A “Sport Ideology” component that emphasizes soccer play (practice) and separates evaluations in soccer from evaluations in everyday life. (2) A “Sport Rules” component, securing the opportunity for enthusiasts to play in official games and spending less time in practice. (3) A “Sport Symbols” component, such as rewards for enthusiasts. (4) A “Sport Behavior Patterns” component, such as promoting playing styles that respect individuals, and focusing on playing games, as well as drinking beer after practice and games. (5) A “Sport Civilization” component of such as guaranteeing the playing environment (soccer field) of enthusiasts. (6) A “Sport Organization” component such as a regional club league system (i.e. separation from school).
　These institutional characteristics can be interpreted as those that affirm the social character of enthusiasts, i.e. the institutional characteristics that give enthusiasts legitimacy. Therefore, it is a remaining challenge for Japanese sport organizations to create such institutional characteristics.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the interactions of students with instructors who are successful in maintaining exercise adherence and those who are not, and to characterize the factors required for achieving successful exercise adherence. Three top-ranked pilates instructors (expert instructors) – in terms of the number of students who maintained exercise adherence – and 3 low-ranking instructors (novice instructors) in the same pilates studio were selected. Their interactions with the students were compared through detailed description using the conversation analysis method. It was found that the expert instructors differed from the novice instructors in that they demonstrated a pattern of correcting the students’ incorrect movements by exploring and changing the styles and types of instructions given at significant moments, and by providing positive feedback when students performed the correct movements. It was suggested that novice instructors might improve their students’ exercise adherence by increasing their knowledge of synonyms for technical terms and manipulation, and by developing the ability to give spontaneous, effective instructions using both speech and manipulation, even when teaching continuous movements.

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The purpose of this study was to clarify the learning experiences that promote coaching self-efficacy, outcome expectation and interest in coaching for female basketball players by applying Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT). We targeted 8 female basketball players who played in the top women’s basketball league in Japan, and conducted semi-structured interviews.
We found that the learning experiences for participants were 1) athlete experience, 2) coaching experience, 3) learning at university, 4) observation of various coaches and teachers, and 5) seminars for acquiring coaching licenses. Furthermore, it was clarified that each learning experience influenced cognitive factors (coaching self-efficacy, outcome expectation, and interest in coaching), and led to awareness of supports and barriers for coaches. These findings indicated that it was important to provide female basketball players some effective opportunities for experiencing coaching and learning about it. Additionally, improvements in the environment of coaches also helped female basketball players to reduce their anxiety about working as coaches.

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　The purpose of this study was to acquire historical insights into women’s football in prewar Japan. The study had 2 specific aims: 1) to analyze the origin and development of women’s football in Japan through information gathered at higher educational institutions for women (The Girls’ Higher Normal School, Nara Women’s Higher Normal School, Japan Women’s College, Tokyo Women’s School of Gymnastics and Music) and 2) to analyze the growth of women’s football using information collected at public high schools for girls. To achieve this, the historical records of 422 school were reviewed.
　To address the first question, it was investigated whether instruction and guidance were available at higher educational institutions for women, and whether football was an extra-curricular activity. The data suggested that while football might have been taught both as part of the regular curriculum and as an extra-curricular activity, none of the institutions played a key role in the shift from casual to competitive play or in the growth of football throughout Japan. Analysis of the expansion of football revealed that, of the 286 girls’ public high schools surveyed, 53 offered football; these institutions were broadly distributed from Kyushu to Hokkaido. Evidence of women’s football was confirmed from 1902 to 1940, most instances being in the Taisho era (1912–26), followed by the Meiji era (1868–1912) and the Showa era up to 1945 (1926–45). Football was played mostly during free time and athletic meetings, but it was also sometimes played during class, as a club activity, and during excursions. In some cases, football was played regularly and school competitions were held; however, there were no confirmed examples of inter-school competitions. The involvement of instructors, uniforms, equipment, and rules at the 53 schools was established. The data suggest that instructors, including principals, were involved to some extent, and that football was made more accessible by the provision of appropriate uniforms and equipment. There were mixed results for rules; in some cases, football was played casually with relaxed rules, while in other cases, female students played more competitively and organized association football like their male counterparts.
　This study is significant in being the first attempt to empirically examine the history of women’s football in Japan.

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　The present study attempted to standardize a Collective Cohesion Questionnaire based on Carron’s model, considering issues covered in previous research such as low relevance, lack of survey subjects, the small number of target events and the need to consider the cultural background of Japan. In the first survey, a questionnaire consisting of a total of 40 items was created, taking into account the issues that had been covered previously. A total of 1,370 high school and university club athletes representing 26 sports were surveyed. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis of the data obtained from 1,131 of the subjects confirmed the structure of 4 factors and 13 items. In the subsequent second survey, a total of 411 high school and university athletes from 16 sports were retested using the 13 items extracted in the first survey. At that time, the Sport Psychological Test for Teams was also administered as an external standard. As a result, confirmatory factor analysis of 256 subjects confirmed a 4 factor structure. Although the internal consistency of the scale and the validity of the criteria were also confirmed, the stability of the scale in the retest method was only moderately correlated with all 4 factors. In the third survey, we include a total of 386 high school and university athletes with appropriate modifications to the methods, and confirmed the stability of the scale in the retest method. Finally, a questionnaire to measure group cohesiveness in sports was completed. This has the 4 factor structure proposed by Carron and can guarantee reliability and validity.

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　The purpose of this study was to clarify the process for the introduction and diffusion of Olympic and Paralympic Education in Japan. To achieve this goal, we analyzed the process of developing the various practices of Olympic and Paralympic Education in a school located far from Tokyo, the host city of the Olympic and Paralympic Games in 2021, from the perspective of the principal’s leadership.
　The practice of Olympic and Paralympic Education in elementary school X was developed from “individual practices by specific teachers” to “various practices by all teachers”. In the process of realizing the former, principal A encountered “maintainability” as part of teacher culture and overcame this situation through care and innovative leadership. Also, in the process of realizing the latter practices, principal A conducted innovative and facilitative leadership to overcome “mutual non-interference”. Through these processes, it was considered that principal A had achieved everyone’s understanding of the idea of the “various practices of Olympic and Paralympic Education”.
　These findings suggest that for the future diffusion of Olympic and Paralympic Education, it is necessary to grasp the concept step by step, to use the “association” strategy, and to select an appropriate teacher who is responsible for the diffusion process.

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　This study was performed to clarify the kinetic and kinematic properties of trunk motion while performing the bar twist exercise. The increasing length and increasing mass of the exercise bars were taken as the independent variables. A total of 21 male athletes who regularly performed strength and power training were included in the study. The bar twist exercise was performed using 5 bars, comprising 1 bar 2.00 m in length and 10.00 kg in weight (NB), 2 long bars with an increased length without changing the mass (2LB, 3LB), and 2 heavy bars with a mass that was increased by adding weight to the bar without changing the length (2HB, 3HB). The three-dimensional kinetic and kinematic variables were then calculated. The principal findings were as follows:
1) The torque of the trunk twist increased as the length or mass of the bar was increased.
2) The torques of trunk flexion and lateral flexion to the left against translational motion were greater for HB than for LB (flexion (Nm⁄kg): 3LB [0.23 ± 0.22] < 3HB [0.34 ± 0.25]; lateral flexion to the left (Nm⁄kg): 2LB [0.35 ± 0.23] < 2HB [0.39 ± 0.28], 3LB [0.33 ± 0.21] < 3HB [0.35 ± 0.28], Nm⁄kg).
3) The rate of torque development (RTD) of trunk twist torque was greater for LB than for HB (2HB: 6.90 ± 3.22 < 2LB: 7.84 ± 2.58, 3HB: 6.09 ± 1.63 < 3LB: 6.88 ± 2.13, Nm⁄s⁄kg). However, the RTD of trunk twist torque for LB and HB was smaller than for NB (9.13 ± 2.53 Nm⁄s⁄kg).
　These results indicate that the trunk twist torque increases with the moment of inertia of the bar due to the increase in length or mass, which is a standard feature. In contrast, it was suggested that the increase in mass contributed to the increase in trunk flexion–extension and lateral bending torque. The RTD of trunk twist torque was decreased due to the increase in length or mass. However, the amount of decrease in RTD of trunk twist torque was smaller for LB than for HB.

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　The present study of para-alpine sit-skiing was conducted to investigate the degree to which aerodynamic drag could be reduced and skiing time shortened by lifting one or both of the outriggers forward. For this purpose, the aerodynamic forces on 4 sit-skiers were measured in a wind tunnel while adopting 3 positions: Normal position with both outriggers placed down the body side; One side lifted with the outrigger forward; Both sides lifted with the outriggers forward. Furthermore, skiing simulations were run on the basis of the results obtained.
　In the wind tunnel test, drag areas were 0.360 ± 0.024 – 0.364 ± 0.030 m² in the normal position, 0.307 ± 0.029 – 0.318 ± 0.037 m² in the one-side lifted position, and 0.229 ± 0.026 – 0.239 ± 0.029 m² in the both-sides lifted position. Thus, compared with the normal position, aerodynamic drag was reduced by approximately 15% by lifting one of the outriggers forward and by approximately 35% by lifting both outriggers forward. Both projected area and drag coefficient were especially reduced by lifting both sides. It was considered that this decrease in aerodynamic drag resulted from the smaller projected area of the arms and outriggers, and the change in the overall attitude of the skier to a shape less sensitive to aerodynamic drag.
　The results of the skiing simulation revealed that, in comparison to the normal position, skiing distances of more than 34 m in the one-side lifted position and more than 21 m in the both-sides lifted position were needed to shorten the time by more than 0.01 s. As time is measured in units of 0.01 s for para-alpine skiing, it was considered that if skiers cannot lift one or both of the outriggers forward for longer than those distances, skiing time would not be shortened. On the other hand, if one considers the compressed skiing times classified according to the degree of skier impairment in para-alpine skiing, the effects of lifting the outriggers forward on skiing time would also be compressed according to sport class. Therefore, it is necessary to decide whether lifting the outriggers forward or not according to skiing distance and skier class would be justified.

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　Hirobumi Daimatsu was a legendary sports coach in Japan, especially after coaching the Japanese women’s national volleyball team (“the Oriental Witches”) that won the World Championship in 1962 and the gold medal in the 1964 Tokyo Olympic Games.
　He was famous for his extreme training methods and had a great influence on coaching methodologies for Japanese sports as a whole. Although many studies have examined his way of thinking from various perspectives, the relationship between his war experiences and his approach to coaching has not been analyzed sufficiently. The present study aimed to examine how Daimatsu’s first-hand war experiences (“keiken”) developed into his coaching beliefs (“taiken”), focusing specifically on a theory created by Yoshida that war veterans’ understanding of their experiences had been changing over time from when they re-entered society and grew older. Yoshida made this transformation clear by referring to 5 periods since the end of the Second World War in 1945.
　Firstly, many demobilized soldiers including Daimatsu had to face civilians who hated the Japanese military just after defeat. They lost their morale, from 1945 to around 1950 could not talk about the military or the War. Secondly, even after former professional officers and wartime politicians had been rehabilitated, the veterans themselves still found it difficult to positively address some topics related to the War in the 1950s.
　Thirdly, the generation that had experienced the War who shouldered the responsibility of reconstruction from the destruction and devastation gradually gained confidence and became able to talk about their wartime experiences. Some of them discovered a positive meaning in their own experiences on the battlefield from the late 1950s to the late 1960s. Daimatsu was a typical example of the third period because he spoke clearly about the positive meaning of his war experiences.
　Penultimately, in the 1970s and 1980s, that generation of Japanese became able to accept the responsibility for the War, especially in Asia, and to gradually acknowledge the negative aspects of their experiences. Finally, in the 1990s, a small number of survivors chose to disclose tragic stories that had not come to light previously.
　Thus, Daimatsu was only one of a generation that had experienced the War and who became recognized as a spokesman for many of that generation who held common feelings.

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　In the area of sport philosophy, research has been conducted on “failed athletic contests” in which athletic superiority is not demonstrated. In order to provide a new perspective on the theoretical framework of “failed athletic contests”, this study focused on the presence of spectators, an aspect that has not been discussed in previous studies, particularly the issue of booing/jeering and cheering, which may have a significant effect on players.
　First, I examined the penalties stated in the official rules and regulations for soccer and basketball, where booing/jeering by spectators tends to be allowed. It was found the organizer or the referee was not required to stop audience booing. However, some booing/jeering attempts to suppress the performance of players, which could be regarded as disruption of a contest that is intended to embody player excellence.
　Spectator reaction contributes to player performance, and cheering can help to reverse victory or defeat. In this sense, it could also be an obstacle to embodying which players excel. In this study, it was demonstrated that spectators could undermine the excellence of players, which is the purpose of competitive sport, not only by booing/jeering but also by cheering. When spectators engaged in booing, jeering or cheering that reversed victory or defeat, the institutional identity of the contest was brought into question, thus creating “failed athletic contests”. It was suggested that excessive booing/jeering and cheering that led to reversal of victory or defeat would become problematic if the highest priority was to embody the principle of player excellence during a match and avoid “failed athletic contests”.

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　Currently, there are over 500 skills categorized in the scoring rules for women’s gymnastics, as a result of continuous skill development by athletes and coaches. To reorganize the results of such skill development, it is necessary to study changes in the scoring rules and improvements made in equipment and consider how they relate to skills. Studies that focus directly on sports movements and explore the technical aspects of sports, rather than investigating the general history of sports development from a sociocultural perspective, are centered on the historical development of skills (Kishino and Tawa, 1972).
　Such studies are now commonplace in gymnastics research but are based mostly on men’s events. This study examined the developments made in salto skills on balance beams from the 1960s to the present day, highlighting the changes in skill development triggered by new scoring rules and improved equipment and shedding light on the future direction of skill development in gymnastics.
The results of this research are summarized as follows.
　1. In the 1960s, salto skills for the balance beam were identified and were performed only during dismount.
　2. From the 1970s to the 1980s, many salto skills were developed owing to improvements in balance beam equipment as well as the program component system of scoring rules and the point adding system.
　3. Since the 1990s, owing to rule changes and a lack of any change in the width of the beam, almost no new salto skills have been developed.
　4. Since the 2000s, owing to a change in the height of the balance beam, having a mat placed on the ground for safety, and a scoring rule focused on high difficulty, the development of dismount skills has progressed.
　In relation to the future of skill development, this can be summarized as follows.
　1. Development of balance beam dismount skills with complicated structures that are similar to those in floor exercises is likely to occur.
　2. We can also expect the development of different salto skills on the beam relative to floor exercises, such as a modified salto with a one-leg jump and one-leg landings that can be performed on the width of the balance beam.

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　The present study of baseball pitchers was conducted to: 1) investigate the relationship between lower limb muscle endurance and the rate of decrease in delivered ball velocity, and 2) develop a simple field test (FT) for evaluation of lower limb muscle endurance. Eight collegiate baseball pitchers participated, and each threw 50 consecutive balls at intervals of 12 seconds. During this task, the rate of decrease in ball velocity was determined. The muscle endurance required for flexion and extension of the hip and knee joints was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer. The number of repeated back-lunges to exhaustion was used as an indicator of lower limb muscle endurance obtained from the FT. The rate of decrease in ball velocity was significantly correlated with the isokinetic muscle endurance in knee flexion and the number of back-lunge repetitions. The number of back-lunge repetitions was significantly correlated with the isokinetic muscle endurance of knee flexion. These results suggest that 1) pitchers with a low rate of decrease in ball velocity have superior knee flexion muscular endurance, and 2) the FT proposed in this study is useful as a simple test to evaluate the knee flexion muscular endurance related to the rate of decrease in ball velocity.

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　The present study was conducted to investigate the strength and power characteristics of the lower limb using the rebound jump (RJ) for collegiate female soccer players, focusing on the relationships between running performance, muscle strength and differences in competition level. The performance variables of 19 collegiate female soccer players in the 20 m sprint, pro agility test, squat, isokinetic knee strength, countermovement jump, and RJ were calculated. The kinetics data (ground reaction force, joint torque, power, joint work) in the RJ were then calculated. The results revealed no relationship between performance variables in the RJ and various parameters related to running performance and muscle strength. However, in the starter group, the 20 m sprint time and pro agility time were significantly faster, the RJ-index was significantly higher, and contact time in the RJ was significantly shorter. In addition, in the starter group, the maximum ground reaction force, ankle joint torque, power, and knee joint torque in the first half of the take-off phase were large. Therefore, it is suggested that female soccer players with a high competition level have excellent strength and power abilities, particularly in terms of ankle joint and knee joint muscle strength and power exertion ability to achieve the jumping height in a short contact time.

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　The aim of this study is to describe the history of the Junior High School Physical Culture Association (JHSPCA) based on reexamination of the relationship between education and competition in school sports.
　Previous studies have maintained that there was a conflict between education and competition in school sports, and that the potential educational effects of sports were impeded by its competitive focus. However, it is assumed that the JHSPCA held competitive championships under the guise of educational activity. To fully understand the historical development of school sports we should instead reexamine whether the educational aspect of school sports is actually combined with its competitive one. This reorientation of perspective would then allow for new research questions, such as how the JHSPCA was formed and developed, and how and why it combined education and competition in school sports. The present study attempts to answer these questions, which previous studies have not, by analyzing documents gathered from official annual reports of the JHSPCA.
　The study produced a number of findings. Beginning in 1947 with the establishment of the postwar junior high school system, the JHSPCA first developed at the prefectural level. Initially the association was formed by PE teachers under the influence of the Ministry of Education, while also accepting the assistance of the Association of Junior High School Principals, local boards of education, and select sports federations. In 1955, the national level of the JHSPCA was initially formed in order to control the games and matches of junior high school athletes and as a counter organization to sports federations. Crucially, the JHSPCA differed from sports federations in that it was specifically driven by educational ideals. Yet, even with such an organization principle, it encouraged games and even matches under the name of educational activities. At that time, some prefectures did not have local JHSPCA branches; however, by 1967 all prefectures had designated branches and the association finally became a national organization.
　In conclusion, this study has clarified that the JHSPCA had to compete against sports federations and thus included a system of competitive championships within the ethos of school sports. By continuing to combine education and competition in school sports, it was possible to utilize competitive championships for the realization educational ideals. The present findings suggest that there is the possibility of modifying the prior consensus that education is opposite to competition in school sports in Japan.

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　In recent years, a number of health issues among adolescents in Japan have become highlighted. One of the major issues in school health is thinness among high school girls. Thinness is closely related to low energy intake, which can lead to menstrual dysfunction and low bone density. It is important to acknowledge these issues as health disorders that are specific to girls, and to consider measures for their prevention. The purpose of this study was to clarify the current situation of health disorders specific to high school girls, and to examine their level of awareness about them. Between March 2018 and February 2019, we conducted a self-administered questionnaire survey targeting 1,551 high school girls from 10th to 12th grade in 32 schools across 7 prefectures. This revealed that 18.7% of the girls were classified as “thin” based on Body Mass Index. In addition, many girls (more than half) had one or more signs of low energy intake, menstrual dysfunction, and history of stress fracture. The survey indicated signs of health disorders specific female high school students, suggesting that this is an important issue that needs to be addressed. The results also indicated that knowledge regarding health disorders was insufficient, as the overall correct answer rate was 50% or less. This was partly related to the presence or absence of health disorders specific to girls. In the future, it will be necessary to clarify the relevant factors that ought to be considered for comprehensive education designed to prevent health disorders specific to girls.

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　The purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between emotion regulation strategies (reappraisal and expressive suppression) and psychological competitive ability during sports games. A total of 492 athletes completed the Japanese version of the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (EQR-J) and the Diagnostic Inventory of Psychological-Competitive Ability for Athletes (DIPCA.3). The DIPCA.3 was used to assess psychological competitive ability as the dependent variable, and multiple regression analysis was conducted to analyze the effects of reappraisal and expressive suppression on psychological competitive ability. The results indicated that reappraisal had a positive effect on all 5 factors of the DIPCA.3. The participants were also classified into 3 clusters: the first cluster comprised players who had a strong tendency to use reappraisal, the second cluster comprised players who had a strong tendency to use expressive suppression, and the third cluster comprised players who did not use either of the emotion regulation strategies. Subsequently, one-way analysis of variance was conducted with each cluster as an independent variable and the DIPCA.3 as the dependent variable. The players who had a weak tendency to use both reappraisal and suppression had the lowest scores for 4 of the 5 factors. These findings indicate that athletes who use reappraisal or suppression as an emotion regulation strategy have better psychological competitive ability during competitive games.

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　The present study aimed to clarify the establishment of Judo etiquette during the wartime and postwar periods. Nakamura (2011) discussed Japanese martial arts etiquette in modern Japan. In his work, however, he dealt largely with Kendo etiquette, and inadequately addressed the history of Judo, as well as overlooking the period of Allied occupation (1945–1952). This article focuses on the reformation of Judo etiquette in that period and clarifies its historical background.
　It was revealed that, first, the enactment of etiquette in August 1940 was intended to be a criticism of Taro Inaba, who was excommunicated at the Kodokan. Inaba had criticized the Kodokan and the Dai Nippon Butokukwai, stating that when a judoka stands and bows with shizen hontai (natural posture) it reflects disrespect to the emperor. During the war, with the increasing influence of State Shinto, Inaba’s claim could have undermined Judo’s social credibility. Therefore, the Kodokan and Butokukwai abolished shizen hontai and in its place instituted the posture of attention, the basic Shinto posture, and this was also followed by the military and adopted in middle school games; thus, the current system of courtesy was established during this period. Furthermore, the practice of sitting on tatami mats with the left knee and standing up with the right foot was adopted in 1943 to match the postures stipulated in State Shinto.
　The etiquette established during the war was modified during the Occupation, when bowing to feudal seniors and the kamidana were abolished. In addition, the choice of bowing posture, whether at attention or a natural posture, was left to the practitioners. In this way, it can be said that Judo etiquette was democratized.
　However, college students’ conduct during Judo bouts was disturbed after the Tokyo Olympics in 1964. Consequently, wartime etiquette was revived. However, the Kodokan did not disclose that its etiquette was influenced by State Shinto and the military. The official line was that the etiquette was based on principles of Judo such as seiryoku-zenyo (maximum use of energy) and jita kyoei (mutual welfare and benefit).

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　[Introduction] High-intensity exercise reportedly promotes fibrinolytic activity. However, fibrinolytic activity may be inhibited in overweight individuals with low-grade inflammation. In this study, using body mass index (BMI) as an indicator of overweight status, we investigated the effects of obesity and pre-obesity on fibrinolytic activity after high-intensity exercise.
　[Materials and Method] The subjects were 12 young men aged 19-23 years. Based on a previous definition of overweight as a BMI of 25 or higher, 7 subjects had a BMI of less than 25 (BMI <25 group) and 5 had a BMI of 25 or higher (BMI ≥25 group). After the subjects had undergone the Cooper test (a 12-minute run), we measured their α2-plasmin inhibitor/plasmin complex (PIC) levels.
　[Results] There was a significant increase in PIC in the BMI <25 group (pre: 0.5 ± 0.02 μg/mL, post: 1.8 ± 0.3 μg/mL, p< 0.01), but no significant difference between the pre- and post-exercise levels was evident in the BMI ≥25 group (pre: 0.5 ± 0.08 μg/mL, post: 0.9 ± 0.1 μg/mL, p> 0.05).
　[Conclusion] Fibrinolytic activity after high-intensity exercise is inhibited in obese and pre-obese young men.

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　This study examines the policymaking process related to the discontinuation of the Physical Education Bureau of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture in 1949, by focusing on the constraints on those involved. These aspects are summarized with reference to 2 points: constraints on participation, and constraints on selection.
　First, regarding the constraints on participation, it is notable that a decision regarding the formulation of the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture establishment act was taken at a meeting between Takashi Morita and Paul Webb. Others were prevented from participating in the policy-making forum on the drafting of the bill. Even for policy decisions concerning the Physical Education Bureau, Toshiro Azuma and William Neufeld were unable to have any influence. However, with regard to the establishment of the Health and Physical Education Council, professionals who were peripherally involved were able to participate in discussions related to its purpose and about the members.
　Second, with regard to the constraints on selection, the following can be pointed out: Those who changed the direction of policymaking were Morita and Neufeld. Morita’s action was a policy reversal from establishment of the Physical Education Bureau to its discontinuation, and from the establishment of the Health and Welfare Bureau to its abandonment. The constraint occurred between the Physical Education Bureau, the Civil Information and Education Section, and the Ministry. Neufeld, as a Civil Information and Education Section official, irrespective of his intentions, had to chosen to discontinue the Physical Education Bureau.
　The implications of this study can be summarized as follows: First, the process by which the those involved were constrained was clarified both empirically and structurally. This has provided a new historical insight into the formulation of postwar physical education policies by facilitating a structural grasp of the policymaking process involved, which led to the establishment of a policy network for postwar physical education and sport.

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　The purpose of this study was to develop a method for calculation of camera parameters using feature points outside the control volume (known three-dimensional coordinates) and feature points inside the control volume (unknown three-dimensional coordinates, as filmed by multiple cameras). The film process used in this study was as follows: (1) The camera platform position and focal length for properly filming the control volume were selected. (2) Without changing the camera platform position and focal length, the cameras were panned and tilted to film the feature points outside the control volume (number of images = 4). (3) The camera platform joints were adjusted and fixed to the film control volume. Finally, (4) the feature points inside the control volume were filmed by the cameras. From the images obtained, the digitizer coordinates of the feature points inside and outside the control volume were collected. The focal length and camera platform parameters (such as the position, lean, and joint angle) were estimated using hybrid particle swarm optimization and a genetic algorithm to minimize the sum of the reprojective errors of the feature points outside and inside the control volume. The camera parameters at the moment of filming the control volume were calculated using the focal length and camera platform parameters. Three-dimensional coordinates as accuracy verification markers (70 points) inside the control volume were reconstructed using the estimated camera parameters. The RMS errors of the accuracy verification markers in the CCUP method and a DLT method developed in a previous study were 10.5 and 4.4 mm, respectively. These results reveal that the CCUP method can be adapted for collection of three-dimensional coordinates.

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　Introduction: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of a 4-week barefoot sprint training program on sprint biomechanics and stretch-shortening cycle jump ability.
　Methods: Fourteen children with no experience in barefoot sprinting were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups: a barefoot training group (3 boys and 4 girls; age, 11.0 ± 0.8 years-old; height, 143.1 ± 8.4 cm; body mass, 35.4 ± 5.6 kg; shoe mass, 0.17 ± 0.02 kg) and a control group (3 boys and 4 girls; age, 11.0 ± 0.8 years-old; height, 142.6 ± 8.2 cm; body mass, 34.4 ± 6.4 kg; shoe mass, 0.18 ± 0.01 kg). The 4-week intervention consisted 40 minutes of sprint training per weekly session using the allocated footwear. Before and after the intervention, 2-dimensional biomechanical analysis of the 50-m maximal sprint under both shod and barefoot conditions, and the countermovement jump and 5 repeated rebound jumping tests were performed by both groups. Pre- to post-test changes in spatio-temporal parameters and sprint kinematics, and jump heights for both jump types, and the contact time and rebound jump index for the rebound jump, were analysed using 2-way mixed ANOVA.
　Results and Discussion: After the 4-week intervention, a higher step frequency (p <0.01), a longer step length (p <0.05), and a higher sprint velocity (p <0.01) were observed in the barefoot training group, although no change was observed in the foot strike patterns and the swing leg velocity. The barefoot training group showed a higher rebound jump index (p <0.05) and a shorter contact time (p <0.01), while no differences were evident in the counter-movement jump height. These results suggest that 4-week barefoot sprint training seems to be an effective strategy for improving certain aspects of sprint biomechanics and for development of fast stretch-shortening cycle ability in children.

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　Engaging in sports during adolescence contributes immensely to the formation of consciousness and attitudes that encourage sports participation in adulthood. However, previous studies of this issue have not clearly considered the types of sport pursued during adolescence that affect sports participation in adulthood. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the relationship between sports participation in adulthood and sports life career (SLC) based on gender differences. SLC is regarded as the combination and sequence of sports experience. In this study, SLC was limited to sports participation and focused on 3 viewpoints: place/opportunity, sports orientation, and number of sports. A questionnaire survey was conducted and the data were obtained from a sample of 1,063 men and women ranging in age from their 30s to 50s. The main results of the analysis are provided below.
　1. There was a significant relationship between place/opportunity in adolescence and sports participation in adulthood at each level of education for both men and women. In particular, the factor most relevant to “sports participation in adulthood” was “extracurricular sports activities and other activities”, followed by “activities other than extracurricular sports activities”, and “extracurricular sports activities”. Additionally, diversity of place/opportunity during adolescence was commensurate with consciousness/attitude toward sports as well as with sports participation in adulthood for men.
　2. Sports orientation in adolescence and sports participation in adulthood were unrelated at each level of education, regardless of gender differences. In addition, for both men and women, the diversity of sports orientation in adolescence, sports participation in adulthood, and consciousness/attitude toward sports had no effect on one another. However, the diversity of sports orientation in adolescence was positively correlated with other SLC viewpoints such as place/opportunity and number of sports.
　3. Regarding the number of sports at each level of education, multiple sports showed a higher value than single sports, irrespective of gender differences. In addition, it was clear that the number of sports pursued in adolescence was directly proportional to subsequent consciousness/attitude toward sports and the promotion of sports participation in adulthood for men.
　The present findings suggest that a diverse sports life in adolescence is related to sports participation in adulthood. Future studies should consider the construction of an environment that facilitates such diversity in sports during life.

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　For the purposes of this study, a sportsman’s cognition or beliefs in mastering skills was defined as “beliefs in sports skills”. The study aims were to develop a cognitive scale for beliefs in sports skills for soccer players, to examine its reliability and validity, and to demonstrate its factorial structure and characteristics. A questionnaire survey was conducted on 1173 male student soccer players (341 junior high school, 464 high school and 368 college). The collected data were subjected to exploratory factor analysis, reliability analysis and confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling. The results showed that soccer players’ beliefs in sports skills could be represented by a hierarchical model with 2 higher-order factors and 6 first-order factors. The 2 higher-order factors were termed beliefs in sports skills with striving and that with non-striving, respectively. It was revealed that beliefs in sports skills with striving consisted of 4 first-order factors: understanding the strategy, application of game experiences, importance of training and mastery of skills. On the other hand, beliefs in sports skills with non-striving consisted of 2 first-order factors: dependence on ability and emphasis on results. The cognitive scale developed in this study had sufficient reliability and validity, and made it possible to understand beliefs in sports skills for soccer players. The present study showed that sports skills beliefs could be divided into 2 concepts, i.e. striving and non-striving, for achievement of intentional physical activity, and that inexperienced soccer players had low cognition for mastering these skills.

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　The purpose of this study was to clarify the superior skiing technique characteristics shown by Japanese skiers, including major ski demonstrators, expert skiers and advanced skiers.
　Twelve skiers performed a long turn on 2 courses with different curvatures and were filmed with 3 cameras (60Hz): 2 panned and 1 panned and tilted. To obtain the 3-dimensional space coordinates, a panning DLT method was adopted. The movements of the skiers and their skis were then examined by 3D analysis. Comparison among the t3 groups – major ski demonstrators, expert skiers and intermediate skiers – suggested that the characteristics of superior skiing techniques were as follows:
　① At the beginning of the turn phase, abduction and internal rotation of the outside hip increase the ski edging angles and attack angles. This is the angle between the vector of the ski and the skier’s velocity．
　② This creates resistance force from the surface of the snow, enabling the skier to obtain centripetal force and then turn acutely at the beginning of the turn phase.
　③ Because of this, the skier can turn smoothly, involving low deceleration at the ending of the turn phase and the edge changing phase.

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　This paper aims to clarify some of the diverse martial arts practices during the Meiji era by identifying martial arts entertainment that was mainly prevalent in that period. It follows the activities of shinto-ryu kenbujutsu, which was founded by Hibino Raifu in the middle of the Meiji period and included performances in its practice. This paper analyzes the martial arts practiced in martial arts performances from the perspective of their performance character. The performance character refers to the nature of martial arts as practiced in a “see/be seen” relationship. How was the martial art practiced in such a relationship? The study examines how Hibino practiced martial arts entertainment while being aware of the audience’s gaze.
　Chapter 2 gives a detailed description of Hibino’s life. Hibino was different from other martial artists in that he had connections with the regime side, such as soldiers, politicians, and scholars, although his origins are unknown. Throughout the Sino-Japanese War and the Russo-Japanese War, he was supported by many people, and his performances were attended by military and political figures. He actively presented the martial arts to such audiences, including those on the regime side, in the form of entertainment.
　Chapter 3 clarifies specific details of the practice of shinto-ryu, which included sword dance, practiced by a swaggerer and recognized by the audience as a dance performed by female geisha. Hibino stated that kenbujyutsu and sword dance were different, and that sword fighting represented an extension of “martial arts training”, which through practice showed the “reality and activity of the yamato spirit”. To be more specific, the demonstration was so fierce that the swords broke, and the audience felt as if they were watching a duel, and even cried. Of course, the audience included soldiers and politicians as mentioned earlier. In other words, Hibino’s martial arts performances satisfied both the masses and the critical gaze of soldiers and politicians.
　As mentioned above, although the martial arts could be perceived as “violent” in the new era, Hibino adapted to the times by actively presenting performances that met the requirements of the audience.

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　“Sport for Development and Peace” (SDP) is a concept that has become widespread in the 21st century. In 2014, the Japanese government started the “Sport for Tomorrow” project as an international contribution and strengthened its cooperation with the ASEAN region. However, SDP has received many criticisms regarding “recolonization”. When tackling gender issues, there is a contradiction in promoting sports that embody male superiority and heterosexism (Saavedra, 2009). Thailand is both a collective society and a feminine society (Hofstead et al., 2010). Traditionally, women and men have been treated equally, but motherhood is a valued role of women, and various forms of sexual expression have become socially acceptable (Hanami, 1995; Sinnot, 2004; Thawaeesit, 2004). Gender norms that differ from the West have been observed in Thai society. Although the Thai government has integrated sports as a national strategy, its understanding of sports as a tool for fostering gender equality remains unclear. Therefore, this research was conducted to investigate the gender norms observed in sports by sports-related policymakers in Thailand, and the way in which sports-related policymakers perceive the role of sports in achieving gender equality in Thailand?
　Applying phenomenological and case study approaches, data were collected via government-published documents and semi-structured interviews with 5 policymakers. The data were analyzed using phenomenological coding.
　Although sports policymakers recognized fundamental gender equality, they tended to assume male superiority in sports, and strong heterosexism was observed. Female athletes were still expected to be good wives and mothers in order to maintain Thai femininity. Girls’ participation in sports was affected by parental attitudes because of Thailand’s strong seniority culture. Sports policymakers recognized that sports could expand women’s education opportunities because athletes gain advantages in entering a university and even in obtaining scholarships.
　The present findings suggest that sports policymakers in Thailand fail to recognize structural gender inequality in sports. In Thailand’s collective and feminine culture, reconsideration of expected roles in the family could fully liberate women, allowing them access to sports as an entry point for social inclusion. Additionally, if the only gender equality role of sport is seen as expanding education opportunities, then this suggests that sports policymakers may lack a comprehensive grasp of gender issues.

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　The purpose of this study was to examine the factors that affect the acquisition of vertical velocity at takeoff in the high jump, with a focus on body rotation and body extension. The subjects were 31 female high jumpers (official record: 1.71 ± 0.04 m) who participated in national-level competitions in Japan. We filmed their take-off motions using 2 high-speed cameras at 240 fps and calculated the kinematic data for their center of gravity. Body rotation and body extension were calculated as model angle change and model length change, respectively. The results obtained were as follows:
　1. In the former phase, when the model length was shortened, a vertical velocity of approximately 50% was obtained at takeoff. The rotation of the body contributed greatly to the acquisition of vertical velocity in the former phase, and extension of the body contributed greatly to the latter phase.
　2. Significant positive correlations were found between the vertical velocity at takeoff and the change in vertical velocity in the latter phase and the vertical velocity at the mid-point. The effect of the correlation was large between the vertical velocity at takeoff and the change in vertical velocity in the latter phase.
　3. Significant correlations were found between the vertical velocity at the mid-point and horizontal velocity and model angle at touchdown. In addition, a significant correlation was found between the vertical velocity at the mid-point and the model angle at the mid-point.
　4. No significant correlation was found between the change in vertical velocity in the latter phase and the body extension parameters in the latter phase. When the model angle exceeded vertical in the latter phase, the acquisition of vertical velocity by rotation and extension of the body became smaller. Therefore, not only the magnitude and speed of body extension but also the direction of extension influenced the acquisition of vertical velocity in the latter phase.
　These results suggest that obtaining a large vertical velocity in the latter phase leads to the generation of a large vertical velocity at takeoff, which usually determines performance in the high jump.

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　In this study, we investigated the rotation motion of the trunk during sprint front crawl swimming. The shoulder and hip rotation movements at different swimming velocities were compared and analyzed. Ten male swimmers specializing in front crawl sprinting participated. Two 10-second trials of front crawl without breathing were conducted. One employed the average swimming velocity for a 50-m race and the other that for a 100-m race. For swimming motion assessment, actual coordinate values were collected by three-dimensional motion analysis. The stroke frequency (SF), shoulder and hip rotation angle (ShR, HiR), and the time until ShR and HiR became maximal in the pull phase were calculated. As a result, in the 50-m race average trial, the value of ShR was significantly smaller than that in the 100-m race average trial. In addition, the time to reach the maximum value of HiR was significantly shorter in the 50-m race average trial. Therefore, it is probable that the timing of shoulder and hip rotation movements will differ between the 50-m and 100-m races as a result of the change in the time to reach the ShR and HiR peaks, since the average swimming velocity in the 50-m front crawl is higher than that in the 100-m front crawl.

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　The purpose of this study was to develop a “consultation strategy for physical education” to enhance teacher efficacy in elementary school physical education and to examine its effectiveness. The study comprised 2 parts: study I to develop a scale for measuring teaching efficacy, and study II to examine the effect of the consultation strategy.
　The following results were obtained:
　1) The efficacy of physical education teaching comprises 3 factors and 20 elements. The 3 factors are: basic knowledge practice, active learning promotion, and learning task correspondence.
　2) Mid-career female teachers face challenges in terms of teaching efficacy in physical education.
　3) The strategy for consultation in physical education suggests it might be possible to enhance physical education teaching efficacy by carrying out consultation in 3 phases: lesson planning, practicing, and reflecting.
　4) The physical education consultation strategy suggests it might be possible to enhance teaching efficacy by carrying out the consultation from 4 different aspects.
　The physical-education-teaching-efficacy-supporting-model-based consultation strategy developed in this research will contribute to guarantee the experience of achieving in teaching physical education, enhance teaching efficacy in physical education, and foster teachers who continue learning regarding teaching physical education.

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　The present study was conducted to re-examine the socio-economic factors that determine exercise habits. Previous attempts to identify such factors using quantitative analysis of social survey data have focused on 3 main socio-economic factors related to health and exercise habits: occupational condition, educational attainment, and economic status. However, the methodology of that research prompted criticism, as it overlooked the possibility that the decision of an individual to adopt exercise habits is a 2-step process. The present study assumed that when individuals decide to take up exercise in leisure time, they first decide whether or not to do so, and then decide the time they intend to devote to it.
　For this study, an analytical model was developed and used to examine the association between leisure time exercise habits and socio-economic status. A quantitative analysis of Sport Life Survey data collected in 2020 was conducted. The double hurdle model was employed to estimate the association between exercise habits and socioeconomic status. The double hurdle model combines a selection model with a model for a continuous variable, and allows different independent variables for each model. This makes it possible to estimate the influence of independent variables on the decision to take up exercise habits, while at the same time allowing analysis of the influence of independent variables on the amount of exercise if an individual decides to adopt it.
　The results showed that all variables related to socio-economic status had a statistically significant influence on whether an individual decided to take up exercise, but not on the length of time devoted to it. Individuals who were more highly skilled, those with higher educational attainment, and those with higher household incomes were more likely to take up exercise habits. However, the influence of socio-economic status on exercise habits was not significant. This suggested that, in Japan, there is no marked socio-economic inequality of exercise habits. The limitations of this research and directions for future research were also discussed.

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　The present study analyzed and evaluated junior high school PE kendo classes designed to provide structured knowledge of basic striking actions and its application to development of skills with teacher support. The subjects were 89 first-year junior high school students (aged 12-13 years) who were learning kendo for the first time in a unit of 9 classes. Knowledge of basic striking actions on the principle that ‘all such actions can be performed with the same movements in a rhythmic manner’ and its application for development of skills through group practice were planned and conducted during the second to the fourth classes.
　Descriptive analysis of what the students kept in mind when practicing these basic striking actions as well as those in the skill test showed that they practiced on the basis of their structured knowledge and developed their skills regardless of gender. Analysis of the students’ evaluations of their learning achievement also revealed positive responses from most of the students. The present results suggest that the classes planned and practiced for this study can be effective for allowing kendo novices to develop both knowledge and skills of the basic striking actions.

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　Physical education teachers and sports instructors try to guide learners’ emergent activities in a better direction and share their kinaesthetic sensations in relation to their emergent activities. Therefore, research to clarify the essence of emergent activity is a domain in which instructors specialize. In addition, research to explore instructors’ attitudes and teaching practices may help to clarify the essential possibilities of emergent activities and provide valuable suggestions for teaching.
　In this study, the author’s teaching practice for the forward handspring mat exercise was addressed and reflective analysis was conducted to clarify the essential possibilities of the emergent activity of this technique.
　This study was conducted in a supplementary exercise class at a physical education university, targeting a female student in her third year at the time.
　The author’s instruction in the forward handspring was analyzed by comparing the modality change in the student’s kinaesthetic consciousness with reflective analysis of the transcendentalism of the practice. The modal variation of the student’s kinaesthetic consciousness was clarified by posing detailed questions.
　This approach revealed the following:
　-It is necessary to pay attention to the differentiation structure of the “bouncing reaction effect” in order to generate this effect in the student’s stepping foot.
　-The key point in maieutic prompting of the bouncing reaction effect of the stepping foot is the catching action effect as passive kinaesthetic intentionality hidden in the action.
　-In maieutic prompting of the bouncing reaction effect of the stepping foot, awareness of body function as an object becomes an obstacle.
　-When we teach students to correct the motion of the stepping foot using this technique, we need to take into account the modality change of kinaesthetic intentionality caused by the change in their pathos.
　-This modality change of kinaesthetic intentionality due to the change in pathos can be avoided by making learners aware of the rhythm of skipping if they have already learned to skip.
　These findings will serve as a valuable resource for teaching this technique.

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　This study investigated the effects of a change in pitch area on the load characteristics of smallsided soccer games (4vs4 and 3vs3) as a regular curriculum activity for upper grade elementary school children, focusing on improvement in physical fitness.
　Sixteen children participated in 2 types of 4vs4 small-sided games with a change in pitch area: Game 1-1 “large pitch” (30m length × 20m width) and Game 1-2 “small pitch” (20m length×15m width). In addition, 12 children participated in 2 types of 3vs3 small-sided games: Game 2-1 “large pitch” (30m length ×20m width) and Game 2-2 “small pitch” (20m length×15m width).
　The ratio of the appearance time of each movement speed (low speed: 0-5.9 km/h, moderate to high speed: 6.0-23.0 km/h) and the total movement distance were measured using GNSS tracking technology (Fieldwiz, ASI). Questionnaires on technique and tactics, physical fitness and psychological aspects were then conducted after each game.
　The main results were as follows.
1) The total movement distance during large pitch games was significantly greater than that of small pitch games (p <0.05).
2) The ratio of the appearance time of moderate and high speed (6-23 km/h) during large pitch games was significantly greater than that of small pitch games (p <0.05).
3) Over 80% of the subjects indicated a positive response in the questionnaire from the aspect of interest.
4) There was a significantly positive correlation between the total movement distance and the total physical fitness score in 4vs4 games (p <0.05). However, no significant correlation was observed in 3vs3 games.
　These results suggest that small-sided soccer games with a change in pitch area might be useful for improvement of physical fitness, and that it would be possible even for children with different fitness levels to have equal opportunities for participating in 3vs3 games.

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　The aim of this study was to clarify the historical transition of U-10 athlete development in German handball. We performed a text mining analysis of articles on U-10 athlete development in the monthly journal “handballtraining” (1988-2018) and the quarterly journal “handballtraining JUNIOR” (2012-2018) published by the German Handball Federation. The historical transition of U-10 athlete development was divided into 5-year periods from 1988.
　The main results were as follows. For the first 5 years, the need for “children’s handball” was encouraged by presenting ideas for systematic and long-term development of game sense, and to recommend the use of balls suitable for children. The next central theme was encouraging children to learn offensive defenses by playing games and developing individual attack skills. Thereafter, a long-term athlete development system was established, and a mandatory game format was implemented. A recent central theme was proposed for development of individual attack skills through practices children could enjoy.
　It was inferred that the turning point of U-10 athlete development occurred in 2003 when the offensive defense became obligatory in games. One of the reasons for the obligatory adoption of defense formation may have been that the content and method of the training activities were not changed by coaches even when they provided seminars and practice drills to help realize the child-specific concept of handball.
　We conclude that for Japan, it is an urgent issue to work on a new U-10 format for athlete development in handball, providing a guiding philosophy for the development and training of players. In order to accomplish this, it might be advisable to change the game format, as was done in Germany, or to change the education of coaches, which might have been ineffective in Germany. These results suggest the need to develop a new policy and implement the necessary changes using one of the aforementioned methods.

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　Adaptation games lead to active participation by setting the optimal level of a game for all the players involved. Players can immerse themselves in the game by optimizing the difficulty of the game. By practicing this concept in sports, especially ball games, a scenario can be created where individuals differing in physical fitness can compete in the same way. With the introduction of adaptation games in physical education, the goal is not to win or lose, or to improve skills, but for all participants to enjoy the game. This reflects a symbiotic viewpoint described in the course of study (MEXT, 2017), and it can be said that adaptation games may include “differences” such as those in physical strength differences, gender, and the presence or absence of disabilities. The purpose of this study was to accumulate practical knowledge and to examine potential teaching methods for adaptation games by examining the type of learning perceived by students in physical education adaptation games at junior high school.
　This study practiced adaptation games in the second-year junior high school basketball unit, and analyzed the sentences on learning cards written by the students after classes and an interview with the teacher after the unit. The study involved quantitative analysis using KH Coder3 software.
　Co-occurrence network analysis confirmed 8 clusters before introduction of the adaptation (from the 2nd to 3rd lessons), 7 clusters at the time of introduction (4th lesson) and 6 clusters after introduction of the adaptation (from the 5th to 9th lessons). Prior to the introduction of adaptation, clusters often used words related to points of attention on shooting and other skills, such as “points,” “success,” and “course”. In the cluster after the introduction of adaptation, words such as “many”, “aggressive”, and “pass” were found. These are words related to increasing one’s shooting opportunities, changing opportunities for participation, and the like.
　The introduction of adaptation changed the opportunity to shoot, and to participate. In addition, individuals learned to enjoy the sensation of victory or defeat as a result of the adaptation. It can be said that the introduction of adaptation embraced “differences” and provided an opportunity to learn “coexistence”.

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　In soccer, as the number of goals determines victory or defeat, the top priority of soccer attacks is to score goals. In many competitions, more than 70% of goals are scored by shooting from within the penalty area (PA). Thus, entering the PA is an important factor in scoring goals to win games and advance in a tournament. However, as no previous research has analyzed in detail attacking play involving entry into the PA, players are unable to receive effective coaching. Focusing on the group stage of the 2014 FIFA World Cup, the present study compared attacking play into the PA between top-ranked teams that advanced (top teams) and lower-ranked teams that were defeated and did not advance (lower teams) in order to identify the characteristics and differences of the two groups. Samples were obtained from all 48 games played in the tournament at this stage. For statistical analysis, the unpaired t test and c2 test were used. No significant inter-group differences were found in the number of attacks or entering the PA and the number of shots, but the top teams had higher success rates in shooting and attacking, suggesting that they had excellent finishers or created better shooting situations. With regard to movements for receiving passes by players who entered the PA, the top teams showed a higher frequency of moving from the outside to the inside of the PA and receiving passes there, suggesting that their players received the ball as they moved toward the PA. Moreover, compared to the players of lower teams, they received passes inside the PA when no opposition defenders were in the attacking direction. These findings suggest that players of top teams evaded marking by opponents by receiving the ball while moving toward the PA. Furthermore, since top teams had higher scoring rates when their players dribbled into the PA, they likely had players more highly skilled in dribbling, thus resulting in goals.

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　For promotion of life skill acquisition in university physical education courses taken as distribution requirements for liberal arts programs, the experience of “self-disclosure” has been receiving some attention (Shimamoto and Ishii, 2007). However, there has been limited information on the design of physical education classes focusing on self-disclosure, and the results thus obtained. The present study examined whether university physical education courses focusing on self-disclosure experiences (Nara and Kiuchi, 2020) lead to life skill acquisition among first-year university students. The study subjects included students taking softball classes as a first-year compulsory physical education course (n=137: 87 men and 50 women) at a national university in the Tokyo metropolitan area. The course was revised to focus on self-disclosure, and the effects were measured by comparing 3 groups before and after the course: a revised group (n=77: 57 men and 20 women), an unchanged group (n=23: 12 men and 11 women), and a control group (n=37: 18 men and 19 women). The revised and unchanged groups comprised students taking revised and unchanged versions of the course taught by the same instructor, while the control group comprised students taking standard softball courses without a focus on selfdisclosure, taught by different instructors. In-class self-disclosure scores were significantly higher (F(2, 134) = 5.46, p <0.01) for the revised group (13.13±2.20) than for the unchanged group (11.83±2.29) or the control group (11.92±2.11). Analysis of variance showed no group–time interaction for the life skills score. However, when the revised group was divided into 3 subgroups ranked by self-disclosure score and the subgroups compared, only in the subgroup ranking highest in self-disclosure showed significant improvement in life skills (F(2, 74) = 3.92, p <0.05). Analysis of variance performed after dividing the revised group into 3 subgroups based on initial life skill levels before taking the course revealed no group–time interaction. It was therefore concluded that (1) the revised course program significantly increased experiences of self-disclosure for the students enrolled, (2) students who experienced self-disclosure in the physical education course significantly increased their life skills regardless of their life skill level before taking the course, and (3) the revised course showed educational results in terms of not only psychosocial effect but also motor skill, physical strength, and health.

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　The first objective of this study was to develop a course unit plan for physical fitness in the lower grades of elementary school, in which traditional play as exemplified by exercises for physical fitness are used as teaching material to create various movements (Study I). The second objective was to conduct classes using traditional play as teaching material based on the course unit plan, in order to gain an understanding of the fundamental movements that appear and the amount of physical exercise during the class (Study II).
Study I:
　A total of 163 traditional play physical activities were selected from prior studies and related publications. 22 elementary school third graders were examined for the fundamental movements included in 42 of the traditional play physical activities. The median number of such fundamental movements that appeared was 3 (minimum: 1, maximum: 8). From the survey results, traditional play physical activities were selected from among those that had no bias in their fundamental movements and had rules that could easily be changed and levels of difficulty that could easily be adjusted, and a course unit plan was developed taking into account the ease of class preparation by teachers.
Study II:
　A total of 5 lessons based on the course unit plan were given to 23 elementary school second graders. The fundamental movements were measured using observational methods, and the number of steps was measured objectively using an accelerometer. The fundamental movements observed and the number of steps measured during the course unit were compared with the age-appropriate standards for motor skills. The results revealed the following:
1) Of the 28 fundamental movements that were set, 25 were observed during the course unit.
2) There was a high frequency of fundamental movements common to many of the traditional play physical activities.
3) The mean number of steps in the physical education classes with diverse movements using traditional play physical activities as teaching materials for lower grades of elementary school was 2343.6±586.1.
4) There were no differences in the number of steps in any of the classes between the higher-ranked and the lower-ranked children.
　These results suggest that from the perspective of fundamental movements and amount of physical exercise, creating various movements using traditional play physical activities as teaching materials may be satisfactory.

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　The purpose of this study was to translate tacit knowledge about enhancement of self-preservation skills in the water into explicit knowledge, and to clarify the aspects that should be taught and evaluated. Based on the findings, an attempt was made to devise a teaching theory for the design of university swimming lessons aimed at enhancing such skills. The participants were 17 experienced teachers who teach university swimming lessons, and SCAT was used to analyze the textual data to create a story line for each lesson in self-preservation skills. From the obtained storylines, we extracted important and common concepts of teaching aspects and how to assess them, and classified them into categories. The number of concepts generated by the text analysis was 36, and from among them, 2 small categories, 2 medium categories, 5 large categories and 5 core categories were generated. The 5 core categories were “Reasons for teaching self-preservation skills in the water in university swimming classes”, “Aims of university swimming classes”, “Self-preservation skills in the water to be taught in university swimming classes”, “Methods of teaching self-preservation skills in the water”, and “Methods of assessing selfpreservation skills in the water”. Based on these core categories, a conceptual diagram of the relationship between water self-preservation skills and methods for teaching and assessing them was presented. In order to enhance self-preservation skills in the water in university swimming classes, it became clear that it was necessary to design classes using four basic theories: 1) to enhance knowledge of water safety, 2) to enhance water movement skills, 3) to enhance the ability to cope with drowning situations, and 4) to assess water movement skills and knowledge of water safety. Also, it was considered necessary to incorporate the following 3 points when designing university swimming lessons for this purpose :1) to set the teaching objectives of the lesson, keeping in mind the type of lesson and the skill level of the students; 2) to set the ratio of the teaching of the 4 basic theories in each lesson in order to achieve the desired teaching objectives; 3) to provide time each hour for students to assess their selfpreservation skills in the water in order to monitor their own skill level.

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　In Japan, some elementary schools have an environment for extracurricular sports activities. However, due to the declining population and burdens on teachers, this arrangement has been difficult to sustain. As a result, some regions have transitioned from school-based extracurricular sports activities to community-based sports activities, and this trend is expected to eventually affect all regions. However, little has been clarified about the effect of regional transition of school-based extracurricular sports activities. The present study examined teachers’ recognition of changes associated with the transition of elementary school-based extracurricular sports activities to community-based junior sports clubs. Face-to-face semi-structured interviews were conducted with 9 participants who had experienced regional transition as teachers. The interview topics included were: past sports implementation, pre-transition coaching status, coaching experience/thoughts/philosophy, present sports implementation status of children, and changes associated with regional transition. All interviews were transcribed verbatim. For qualitative analysis, the KJ method was used to conduct card making, grouping, type A modeling, and type B writing. As a result, 63 small categories were extracted and 5 large categories were created. These categories were as follows: 1) activity, 2) coaching and management, 3) teachers, 4) children, and 5) parents, each including both positive and negative changes. The “teachers” category was further classified into 4 subcategories: burden, educational opportunity, relationship with children, and relationship with parents. The relational model has shown that intense activity caused fatigue and lifestyle deterioration in children. Additionally, increasing the burden on parents resulted in a decrease of sports participation by children and a decrease of educational opportunities resulted in an increase of problems associated with pupil guidance and teacher burden. It is evident that teachers have recognized various changes related to activity, coaching and management, and also teachers, children and parents, and their inter-relationships. In particular, perceived negative changes due to regional transitions should be rectified. Simply transitioning school-based extracurricular sports activities to communitybased junior sports clubs will not be enough to resolve certain problems. It is important to follow management rules and allow cooperation among teachers, parents, and coaches to balance the sustainability of the sports environments available for children and their educational value. As the present case study targeted one region and evaluated only the perceptions of teachers, the suggestions offered are purely from a teacher’s viewpoint and restricted to full transitioning from elementary school-based extracurricular sports activities to community-based junior sports clubs.

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　This study was conducted with 2 objectives: 1. To clarify the content of “reflective interactions” of student teachers during discussions for teaching practice. 2. To examine the factors that influence the statements resulting from “reflective interactions” by student teachers from different viewpoints between practitioner and observer.
　The research was conducted during teaching practice at B Junior High School attached to A University. The targeted lessons were 15 physical education classes conducted by student teachers during this period and 13 discussions held after those classes. The material for the research was comments made by the discussion participants after physical education classes conducted by trainees. In order to examine the student teachers’ reflective interactions based on these comments, the comments were classified into “utterance categories that represented practice”. Furthermore, for the practitioners, we focused on the “representation of problems” and “alternatives”, and for the observers we focused on the “alternatives” and inductively classified them.
　Two results were obtained: First, comments related to “representation of problems” and “alternatives” for practitioners were divided into the following 8 categories: “teaching act”, “class management”, “grasp of students”, “forgetting”, “invention of lesson composition”, “understanding of teaching materials”, “setting of places” and “response to visitors”. In addition, comments related to “alternatives” for observers were divided into the following 8 categories: “teaching act”, “class management”, “teaching materials / teaching materials”, “setting of teaching according to the actual situation of students”, “invention of lesson composition”, “setting of places” and “response to visitors”. Among them, the comments of the practitioners and observers were focused on the “teaching act” category.
　Second, the comments of the lecturers regarding the “representation of problem” and “alternatives” at the discussion were classified into “self-sending” and “sending by others”. Then, focusing on the items for which the number of comments related to “sending by others” exceeded that for “self-sending”, we examined as an example the exchange of opinions between trainees at the conference. As a result, it was suggested that the difference in the positions between the teacher and the observer made a difference to the degree of observation of students in the class, and that student teachers in different positions engaged in reflective interaction. At that time, the student teachers not only listened to the observer’s opinion and shared the facts of the observation, but also expressed his / her own thoughts on that opinion. This suggests that student teachers may have promoted “reflective interaction”.

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