Anfang des 20. Jahrhunderts entstand in Europa mit Deutschland als Zentrum die sogenannte Gymnastikbewegung, in der man statt des Spiess-Maul Systems die neue Gymnastik erfand. Im Zentrum dieser Bewegung stehend, veranstaltete Franz Hilker (1881-1969) 1922 die "Tagung fur kunstlerische Korperschulung" in Berlin. 1923 publizierte er den Bericht der Tagung unter dem Titel "Die kunstlerische Korperschulung", 1925 grundete er den Deutschen Gymnastikbund, und 1926 publizierte er sein Werk "Reine Gymnastik". Durch diese Tatigkeiten hat er eine starke Verbindung zwischen den vielen verschiedenen Gymnastikschulen geschaffen. 1935 hat er sein Werk "Deutsche Gymnastik" verfasst, in dem er die Richtlinien der neuen Gymnastik festlegte. Auch in Japan wurden schon in den 30er Jahren die vielfaltigen Tatigkeiten der gymnastischen Schulen in einigen Buchern vorgestellt. Aber in diesen Buchern gab es nur unbefriedigende Beschreibungen uber die im Rahmen der "Deutschen Gymnastik" verwirklichte Zusammenarbeit dieser Schulen. Der Zweck der Forschung ist es, uber den Beitrag Rudolf von Labans zur "Deutschen Gymnastik" nachzudenken. Dabei sollen neben der "Deutschen Gymnastik" u.a. die Werke "Reine Gymnastik", "Tanzerische Gymnastik", "Gymnastik und Tanz" und "Rudolf Laban/Biographical Entry in Dance Perspective's Ency." berucksichtigt werden. R.von Laban forderte nicht nur die Gymnastikbewegung mit vielen verschiedenen Gymnastikschulen, sondern auch die Entfaltung der Tanzkunst. Einerseits gab F.Hilker einen Leitfaden fur die Bewegungsschulung in der "Deutschen Gymnastik", andererseits zeigte R. von Laban auch konkrete Mittel fur die Bewegungsschulung auf. Dies trug wesentlich zur "Deutschen Gymnastik" bei. R. von Laban gab eine gewisse Methodik vor, in der raumliche, zeitliche und dynamische Gesetze behandelt wurden, besonders in der "Grundschulung der Bewegung" und "Bewegungsentwicklung" in der "Deutschen Gymnastik", die daneben auch "Haltungsschulung", "Bewegung und Gerat" und "Bewegungsgestaltung" enthielt. Gerade hier gibt es einen grossen Unterschied zwischen der Bewegungsschulung der Gymnastik und der des Wettkampfsports, der nur Hochstleistungen verlangt. Zusatzlich zeigte er mit semen "Bewegungschoren" als Community Dance grosse Moglichkeiten der "Bewegungsgestaltung" auf. Eben das ist der eigene Weg der Gymnastik, der anders als der des Sports, vielfaltige Bewegungsschulung und Mitspielen propagiert. R. von Laban hat diese Methodologie der Gymnastik in der "Deutschen Gymnastik" deutlich gemacht.

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The object of this paper is to clarify how sports activities were conducted at student dormitories operated by dokyo dantai (hometown organizations) during the Meiji and Taisho periods. Others have observed that student activities played a major role in the development of modern sports in Japan. Nevertheless, sports activities at student dormitories operated by hometown organizations remain relatively unexamined. Thus, we sought to clarify that sports activities did indeed flourish at student dormitories operated by hometown organizations, using activities held at the Saitama gakuseiyuekikai (student steering committee) dormitory as a case study, The following historical facts are clarified in this paper. First, students who lived at dormitories operated by hometown organizations during the Meiji and Taisho periods regularly took part in sports activities. We found that, as judo and kendo were introduced the end of the Meiji period, tennis was at first eliminated but later rehabilitated by the end of the Taisho period, and that this process is consistent with the way sports were accepted in Japan during this period of modernization. Second, the students often went on excursions. Although these excursions were originally conceived of as a means for physical education, they also functioned as leisure activities. Third, these dormitories operated by hometown organizations maintained close ties with their hometowns. Sports activities were more than just a way to maintain contact with the cities and towns of Saitama Prefecture, but also demonstrated the larger meaning of sports by functioning as a means to develop individual character and to cultivate the minds of youngsters still at home. As described above, our investigation demonstrated conclusively that a wide range of sports activities were conducted at student dormitories operated by hometown organizations during the Meiji and Taisho periods.

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This study aims to show how changes in the rules of Badminton in 2006 were first proposed, what kind of process the final decision-making was based on, and as a result, how the nature of Badminton has been changed and transformed. It is theoretically based on the concept in Zur Kritik der Gewalt by Walter Benjamin (1892-1940). In 2004, the IOC (International Olympic Committee) established new standards for discussion about some Olympic events and put restrictions on the structure of the Olympics to prevent over-expansion. The new standards were in response to requests from the media which the IOC had already accepted. The IOC intended to develop a close relationship with the media for the management of the Olympics. As a result, the IBF (International Badminton Federation), which was aiming to have badminton established as the number one racket sport and included as a permanent Olympic event, decided to comply with the new standards by changing rules of Badminton. According to Benjamin, 'gewalt' is indispensible for the effective functioning of law. Since a new law is established by 'gewalt', the law inevitably remains closely tied to it and embodies its aim. In 2004, the IOC set up new standards for the Olympics by exercising the power of 'gewalt' and required all Olympic sports to comply with these new standards which were intended to respond to demands from the media. In 2006, the IBF decided to accept the requirements of the IOC and changed the rules of Badminton in order to make it a permanent Olympic sport. It did so in the manner of 'gewalt'. In 2006, there were three major changes in Badminton; a change of scoring system, service, and interval. Due to these changes, the times of the games became more manageable, the rules became easier to understand for many people, and the sport became more exciting for TV viewers. On the other hand, it became more difficult for players to enjoy the flow of the game itself. In the past, Badminton had been played during house parties, and thus had a cultural background of being a recreational and social activity, and this was reflected in its rules. However, the rule changes in 2006 eliminated the social and cultural-related rules from Badminton. Badminton become separated from its social-cultural background, the demands of the media were accepted, the matches became easier to manage, and the game became more exciting for the spectators. The structure and influence of 'gewalt' in the changes made to the rules of Badminton in 2006 were made clear by this study.

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This paper is to inquire the whereabouts and significance for the diffusion routes of Jiu-Jitsu (traditional Japanese martial arts) since the turn of the last century from the 19^<th> to 20^<th> century, by viewing through the two Americans, Risher W. Thornberry and John J. O'brien, from the time of having learned Jiu-Jitsu in Nagasaki foreign settlement and to their 30 years of activities after returning to the U.S. One of the main assignments to examine in studies of sport and physical education in late years is to take stock of an ethnocentric interpretation by approaching to the history of propagation abroad of Budo (a collective term of modernized Japanese martial arts) with special focus on bilateral cultural relationship. This paper approaches the following two points accordingly: i) To inquire the chance of the foreigners to encounter Japanese culture, the first point is to analyze the meaning of cultural exchange on local level by looking into Nagasaki foreign settlement. ii) To inquire the social factor of O'brien to get comprehensive sphere of activities by looking into his movement after returning to the U.S. iii) To review into the actual conditions for acceptance of Jiu-Jitsu as military martial arts through the activities of Thornberry at the camp, and study about figuration of cultural succession on the basis of the relationship between after retired him and his pupil. The conclusions of this paper are shown as followings. Firstly, the particular social situation of Nagasaki foreign settlement provided an opportunity for the Americans to accept Jiu-Jitsu. Moreover, according to Thornberry's textbook he had retained cultural identity of Jigo-Tenshin-Ryu (one of the styles of Jiu-Jitsu), but on the other hand the potentiality for this identity to fade out was already there. Secondly, O'brien's textbook points out that a fusion of Jiu-Jitsu and Physical Culture, and this mixture was variously symbolized through the local media. Furthermore, his recreational activities contributed to construct various diffusion routes. Thirdly, Thornberry's Jiu-Jitsu was accepted as military martial arts as the camps demand. On the other hand the succession of Thornbery's Jiu-Jitsu to his disciple Samuel K. Linck indicates that the first did not quite lose the identity of Jigo-Tenshin-Ryu. However, Linck did not succeed Thornberry's Jiu-Jitsu entirely, thus there was a chance of resulting the alternatives. To sum up my main points, the successors were connected one another through Jiu-Jitsu, but the binding force was limited. Thus various requests from the local society were subsumed in the process of succession, and in this meaning its mechanism is not accumulated very easily. However, this kind of flexibility played a role of having made their Jiu-Jitsu well known into the local population.

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