Soon we will see the launch of a new Japanese Marketing History Journal. This is greatly anticipated and overdue. Japan has such a long history of commerce and innovation. Some of the oldest lasting companies in the world are found in Japan. During my 1970 speaking engagements in Japan, I was dazzled to see the fine Japanese domestic and export products. I would buy some products - cameras, watches - and bring them back to the U.S. to the astonishment of my friends and family. In the 1980s, I was captivated by Japan's superior brands in cameras, electronics, watches, automobiles, motorcycles, and many other products. Two of us ended up publishing, “The World's Champion Marketers: The Japanese,” in the 1982 Journal of Business Strategy. We owe to Japan such business concepts as zero defects, kaizen, just-in-time manufacturing, and others. The new journal will give its readers a deep historical perspective on Japan's fascinating marketing history.

The nature, size, and use of a product, every possible channel for distribution, messages and media, and price and payment―all have changed. The decades long consumer preference for self-selection, choice, even product and service creation developed a stronger and more persistent consumer voice. Domestic competition becomes the exception rather than the norm as national economies intertwine. Regulators struggle to respond to changing conditions. The pace and breadth of change inclines contemporary business leaders, business writers, and many academics to research that which predicts rather than reflect upon past practices and we are poorer for it.

This paper outlines seven reasons for and the very real benefits of studying marketing history. More reasons likely exist but these seven demonstrate the enduring value of conducting historical research in marketing. Marketing history researchers can seek to: 1) understand the dynamism of long-term change, 2) learn from natural experiments, 3) build and disseminate knowledge, 4) document the macro impact of marketing, 5) recognize the power of individual contributions, 6) study the evolving role of technology, and 7) document the moral compass of the discipline. The following few examples from existing historical research in marketing illustrate just some of the important contributions made and yet to be made:

　1) Long-term studies document the interplay of relationship dependency and environmental uncertainty in altering the business partnerships.

　2) Data on conditions pre- and post-external shocks such as depression, war, and inflation demonstrate the long-term impact on markets and marketing behaviors.

　3) The intended and unintended consequences of government regulation on competition and consumer protection become more clear through an historical lens.

Marketing success does not come just from innovation, quick reactions to a changing environment, inspirational leadership, and effective implementation. It also comes from embracing uncertainty, knowing what to discard and what to keep. Only an historical lens can bring into focus the issues that allowed companies to survive and grow. Historical research holds great potential for marketing scholars and the discipline. The study of marketing history can confirm Montaigne's promise of historical research “bearing fruit beyond price.”

　本稿の目的は，マーケティングにおいて歴史研究がなぜ必要なのか，その意義を明らかにすることである。とりわけ，従来からマーケティング史研究と密接な関係を有してきた経営史の視点が，マーケティングにおける歴史研究の発展に多大な貢献ができることを示唆している。そのため，経営史研究の分析においてよくみられるように，近代的なビジネス・システムの発展を4つの時期に分け，各時期における経営環境の変化とビジネス・システムの変容，それらに対応したマーケティングの特徴，変化の原因，過程，帰結を概観している。

　こうした長期にわたるマーケティングの変化を考察する歴史研究によって，マーケティングの一般化・理論化の意味が明らかになり，斯学の存在価値と今後の発展をもたらすことができる。同時に，マーケティングの歴史研究の分析・説明方法は，マーケティング実践者にとっても，日々の意思決定や行動において有意義なものとなる。

　私自身は歴史が好きだったし，自分自身でも何冊かの歴史研究の書物を上梓してきた。それでも自分自身を歴史研究者だと考えることは出来ずにきた。本稿では，私の研究を振り返る中で，なぜ私がそう考えてきたのかを整理した。

　しばしば必然性をもって語られる歴史には，実は多くの分岐があった。今この時点が未来への分岐であるように，過去も分岐の連続であったに違いない。その分岐の舳先に立って，先人たちは意思決定を重ねてきた。先人たちはどのような環境の中で，何に向き合い，どのようにして未来を選択してきたのかを知りたい。そのことを知ったからといって，今現在の私たちの選択肢が豊かになるわけではない。それでも知りたい。それは私の個人的な関心に過ぎないが，もしそのことに共感してくれる人たちがいるならば，私の私的な研究にも社会性が与えられることになるだろう。

This short paper suggests that historical research offers us an opportunity to ‘observe’ customers and provides a context to understand and reflect on contemporary marketing. It considers the role of historical research in marketing through two projects. The first highlights the impact of legislation and changing demographic and lifestyle of consumers that shaped the unique character of the modern Japanese konbini and notes the limited historical account of the customer experience or store employees. The success of the Japanese convenience store owes much to this history. The second focuses on the visual dimension and the depiction of British family life in Good Housekeeping magazine advertising over a sixty-year period. It highlights not only what brands were being targetted at British families during this period but looks at how the family unit was portrayed by commercial advertisers in this popular magazine. In post-war Britain advertising featured images of the patriarchal nuclear family with a number of campaigns focused on mothers and children at home. While advertisments for new kitchen equipment on the pages of Good Housekeeping in the 1950's offered a release from the drudgery of domestic work women remained responsible for the ‘housework’ and there was little to challenge this idea. Magazine advertising offers an insight into how family life was depicted in this post war period and reminds us of the debate around the unintended consequences of this promotional activity. Historical perspectives add context and often reflect broader social, cultural, technological and legislative changes that shape our consumption practices. Only in looking to the past can we really understand the present.

In this paper, a contradiction that has developed between the key economic institution of modernity, the market, and its institutionalized practices, marketing, is explored. This paper makes observations beyond earlier discussions of this contradiction based on the history of perspectival developments in the orientations of the discipline and in marketing practices. Specifically, separation of marketing practice from consumers resulting in its conceptualization as a provisional set of activities, and the turn from a focus on needs to a focus on exchange resulting in an emphasis on the health of the market rather than on the health of the people are articulated. It is observed that these developments in marketing orientations signal a reversal of ends and means. It is argued that the modern market, its growth and prosperity, which was originally conceptualized as a means, as one institution to serve humanity's needs, is now an end, and that human beings are now in the service of the economic goals of the market. Based on these observations, the paper proposes that to develop solutions for the problems arising from the historical growth of the marketing discipline and practices in modernity, a new perspective needs to be adopted, one that conceptualizes marketing as cultural practices embedded in communities and involving consumers and organizations as partners in being mutually involved in the construction and fulfillment of human desires.

　嘗て我国にあって商業経済学や商業経営論に埋め込まれて扱われてきたマーケティング論が，独自の研究対象として相対的に自立して措定されるようになったのは，日本が戦後の混乱期を脱して所謂高度経済成長期を迎えようとしていた1960年前後からのことであった。往時のマーケティング研究は，如何に早くアメリカに見る研究成果を導入するかを急ぐ余り，知識の普遍性を尋ねる険路よりもその実用的有用性の側面に注目が集まり，個別特殊な成功事例や眩惑的とも言える接近手法の推奨に関心を注ぐ傾向が強かった。

　確かにアメリカの知的伝統の一つに実用主義の思想があることは事実である。今日ではこれに帰納主義が加わって，些末かつ孤立した仮説を小規模にして再発現可能か否かも判然としないデータに照らして事を済ませる傾向さえ強まっている。本稿は，我国の近時の研究者の多くを捉えて離さないこの実用主義と帰納主義の無批判的な融合の蒙昧性と認識論的な問題点を提示し，以て争論の便に供することを試みようとするものである。

Conceptual models, such as the wheel of retailing and others, have been important in framing many studies of retail history and change. Common to all these models have been two assumptions - sometimes explicit but always implicit. The assumptions are, first, that the dominant retail format is a ‘shop’ of some type, and secondly, space and place are fundamental factors for retailer strategy and management. Significant changes in society linked to new technologies have had a profound influence on consumers, retailing and retailers such that the ‘shop’ is less dominant and the power of space and place in retailing are diminished. The short paper seeks to open discussion on what these changes mean for the long established conceptual models of retail change. Do these models remain valuable as a frame for understanding current changes in retailing, or are new conceptual models required for exploring change in a world of a-spatial and digitally constructed retailing?

　経営史研究において，2000年ごろから方法論が多様となる一方，経営学や組織論など隣接する学問分野との境界領域の研究が注目されるようになっている。隣接分野による歴史分析への注目は，経営史研究者の間で経営史の存在意義や方法論について議論する機会を与え，方法論的発展をもたらした。本稿は，小売研究においても経営史同様の環境変化が生じていることを確認したうえで，小売研究における歴史分析の意義を考察する。

This article explores the diffusion of American retailing innovation in Great Britain with a case study of F.W. Woolworth & Co. from its foundation in 1909 to its divestment by its American parent company in 1982.

　Initially Woolworth's British subsidiary introduced a retail format modelled on that of its American parent company, cheap high quality variety merchandise with three fixed prices, one, three and six pence. The management team was led by American executives and Woolworth family members together with Britons recruited by the founder, Frank Winfield Woolworth. As Woolworth's British subsidiary steadily increased the number of stores during its first two decades, the Americans were succeeded by Britons. Woolworth's American retail format proved to be very successful in Britain until the end of the 1930s. However, Woolworth's retail format became unsustainable in Britain during the 1940s as a result of wartime inflation followed by the increase of the rate of purchase tax on some of its merchandise. By the early 1950s fixed prices had been abandoned.

　During the subsidiary's final three decades it ceased to be dynamic because it was led by a succession of conservative British managers who were reluctant to adapt to the changing British and international retail environment. During the early post-war period they resisted the adoption of self-service retailing which had been embraced by its American parent company. Later during the 1960s and 1970s the subsidiary's British managers resisted and obstructed the diffusion from America to Britain of the parent company's out-of-town discount department store format, Woolco.

　近代初期の日本における消費文化をつくりだした百貨店は，試行錯誤を繰り返しながらその後のマーケティングの前史となるような，新たな市場開拓やブランディングを展開して顧客の潜在的な欲望を喚起した。初期百貨店では，広告をはじめとするデザイン・ディレクションや文化活動，呉服をはじめとする様々な商品における流行操作，子ども用品や家具・室内調度品などの商品開発に至るまで，積極的にかかわりながら市場を開拓していく状況が見られた。明治末から昭和初期にかけての日本の消費文化は，中間層を巧みに消費者として取り込むことで急速に発展していった。その先駆的な試みはその後に続く日本のマーケティング史の源流のひとつとして，学ぶべき点は多いと思われる。本稿では，筆者のこれまでのデザイン文化史的な百貨店研究を，マーケティング史という視点から捉えなおした。

　本稿では，筆者の考える経営史的な視座と方法を説明し，それによって比較的研究蓄積の乏しかった日用品のメーカーの中間流通戦略や中間流通企業に焦点を当てて検討してきた研究の蓄積を基礎に，林周二の『流通革命』とアメリカ経営史のチャンドラーによるメーカーと中間流通企業の歴史的関係に関する所説の再検討を試み，「問屋有用論」を唱える卸業界EDI企業の経営者の所説も紹介した。また，日本の近代以降の長期の歴史のなかでの卸売企業の位置づけの変遷を概観し，川上と川下の双方からの圧力が強まるなかで卸売企業の成否を分けた諸要因についても検討した。成否を分けた大きな要因の1つは，『流通革命』を警鐘と受け止めた次世代の若手経営者の情報交換や，彼らによる垂直的・水平的競争を勝ち抜くための機能向上と経営近代化の戦略と投資であり，それらを実現する人材の確保であった。

The article observes the history of the development of a Japanese business group that started as an arm store―Morimura's family business and became a vertically integrated empire with a wide range of services and goods produced by innovative technology-known both in Japan and abroad as TOTO Group and Noritake. In contrast, being influenced by the philosophers of the Meiji Era like Yukichi Fukuzawa and keeping high ethical standards, Morimura's company has come a long way from selling arms, producing and selling armor for the army's heavy cavalry, investing in unprofitable and bankrupt businesses, been tailoring western clothes, exporting porcelain and creating a business branch in the US, building new factories and expanding on the local market and involving high technology and never giving up. Despite all the historical transformations that Japan has undergone, such as restoration, militarization, war, demilitarization, and occupation, the company created by Ichizaemon Morimura was able to preserve and develop its business significantly, keeping following the consumer needs and high-quality standards. The business also cared for the social needs and social improvement since Meiji and Taisho periods, focusing on the social problems of the city: labor, housing, and social hygiene.

The story behind the business Ichizaemon Morimura built is an incredible example of curiosity and adaptability to market, social and historical changes, and consumer needs. This story can motivate many entrepreneurs around the globe during the time of transformation.

This article was developed especially for the inaugural issue of the new journal ‘Japan Marketing History Review’. The senior author of this article, Nikhilesh Dholakia (Nik) , was invited in 1992 to teach at Chuo Daigaku - indeed, the first foreign professor that Chuo invited to teach a course in English language. In addition to an undergraduate course, Nik also offered a postgraduate seminar. Professor Kazuo Usui (Kaz) - even though a faculty member at Saitama University with a part-time faculty affiliation at Chuo University - joined Nik's postgraduate seminar as a participant. The rest, as they say, is history - a deep friendship between Nik and Kaz, extending to the families, has evolved; and this article is a tribute to this relationship.

In this paper, the authors use the phraseology of the ‘Asiatic Mode’, of Karl Marx, in a playful mode to reflect on the Asiatic Mode of Marketing. The article offers a very brief review of the ‘Asiatic Mode of Production’ ideas of Marx, including a summary of the critique of these ideas. What becomes apparent is that, with the passage of time, Marx was willing to evolve and adapt his ideas - moving from a somewhat admiring view of colonial influence on Asian nations to a more balanced view of the predations of colonial rule.

In the discipline of marketing, with some occasional exceptions, the scholars remain mired in an ‘Asiatic Mode’ of thinking: The West is Best; and the Rest better learn from the West. Practitioners also remain in this mode, though they sometimes venture forth with oft-innovative non-western practices; and even occasionally back-influence the marketing practices of the West.

In this paper, the authors offer their views of marketing histories of the two Asian countries of origin of the authors - India and Korea. Then they turn to a general critique of the way marketing history is studied - or, in many cases, neglected - in Asian settings. A critical scholarly project for the future, the authors believe, is to break out of the ‘gauze of Otherness’ that characterizes western and even Asian views of Asia. It is time to move to (to create) a world where the West is just a region, in the same way Asia or Africa or Latin America are regions; the West becoming co-equal to them.

　本稿の目的は，歴史研究の知見による新興国マーケティング研究の可能性を探ることにある。新興国でも特にアジアに焦点を当て，重要と考えられるいくつかのテーマや事例を提示する。筆者は，新興国マーケティングに対して歴史研究の枠組みを応用する際に，マーケティングがすでに発展した先進国を前提とする視座をそのままの新興国に適用するのでなく，新興国の現状に見合った新しい視座を用いるべきであると主張する。そこで本稿では，「近代化」「埋め込み」「顕示的」「社会的ネットワーク」を鍵概念とし，近代化プロセス，華人ネットワーク，日本の経験の応用可能性，オンライン化という4つのテーマを取り上げ，新興国におけるマーケティング史研究の豊富な可能性を探った。取り上げたそれぞれのテーマにおいて，新興国固有の流通・消費の状況，国際化・近代化が現地にもたらした変化，新興国の流通におけるネットワークの特徴や役割に注目すべきことを示した。

Bygone events and noteworthy individuals have long been used to market goods, services, places, people, and ideas. However, the stories these campaigns tell may neglect and sometimes even reject scholarly accounts of history. Instead, they may embody a narrative of heritage, which tends to be a rather selective, romanticized, and self-serving view of the past. Though the marketing of heritage can be relatively innocuous in the case of brands or stores, at a macro level it may become highly toxic when it supports socially undesirable attitudes and behaviors and fosters partisan politics. Serious historical research grounded in diverse perspectives and data sources is important for challenging erroneous heritage marketing and mitigating its undesirable consequences. This commentary explores the topic of history and heritage with three instances from the United States - the Texas Creation Myth, the Lost Cause of the Confederacy, and the Winning of the West. Similar tensions with fact-based history also apply to many other heritage marketing movements worldwide.

The study of the history of retailing and marketing is an expanding one. Corporate and consumption studies of many eras and in many countries have been developed and much new work is underway. Curiously though, the “voice” of the consumer, especially around the act of shopping is often absent or muted. Instead the focus tends to be on the business and corporate narrative on the one hand and the consumption and socio-cultural product on the other. This is not a new observation and there have been calls for, and some papers using various consumer artefacts and records arounds shopping. This paper considers the use of a serendipitous donation of a long-run (1977-1999) series of shopping diaries recording one individual's every shopping trip and retail purchase over this period. Considering this extensive record suggests that the consumer voice is needed in historical studies of retailing and consumption. The paper outlines the need for, and the possibilities and benefits of, using such personal shopping artefacts in retail historical research.

This article argues the gift as an ineluctable agent of cultural diffusion. The power that the gift exercises can be robust and pervasive; or it can be elusive and transient. Our research question is, what is the role of aesthetics and ideology employed by the giver or its intermediaries, including marketers, for the consequent adaptation of cultural diffusion? We examine four cases in Japan's history when Japan had cultural exchanges with its Others: 1) gifts from China (Tang dynasty) in the tribute system (630-864), 2) gifts of European missionaries to Japan and souvenirs of Europe acquired by Japanese emissaries to Europe (1549 to 1590), 3) souvenirs of Japan acquired by Europeans who visited Japan from the late Edo to Meiji eras (1853 to 1890); and 4) seasonal gifts between Japanese consumers (primarily for o-chugen and o-seibo) through which foreign products were diffused. We conclude that it is the thought (ideology) that counts in cultural diffusion and adaptation. Marketing, in contrast, as the instigator of commercialized gift rituals, fueled the importation of foreign gift rituals as well as foreign goods by promoting new traditions such as Christmas and Valentine's Day giving. We reflect on cultural contagion from past marketing efforts so that we may find ways to use marketing more positively, such as in nourishing more prosocial giving, for a better sustainable future. We conclude with contributions of the present study to marketing history.