The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) was established in 1889 by Ibrahim Temo and his classmates at the Army Medical School in Istanbul to restore the 1876 Constitution, which had been suspended by Sultan Abdul Hamid II since 1878. However, under the suppression of the Sultan, CUP leaders took exile to Europe. The founder, Ibrahim Temo, moved to Constanza, Rumania.
The Osmanli Committee of Liberty, another Constitution-supporting organization established in Selanik in 1906, accepted a mission of the CUP in Paris, which was then under the leadership of Ahmet Riza, and changed its own name to CUP Selanik in the same year.
In 1908 Niyazi, a member of CUP Manastir, another CUP local, which had separated from CUP Selanik, started the rising for the revival of the Constitution that marked the beginning of the Young Turks Revolution.
After the 1908 uprising, the CUP Selanik leaders—Talat, Cemal, and Enver—in their attempt to gain recognized positions in the traditional regime, approached older statesmen in the Osmanli government. It was in accordance with this strategy that they decided to eliminate other CUP members, even its founder Ibrahim Temo, so to make CUP Selanik the only authoritative center of the CUP. As a result, Ibrahim Temo, who played a crucial role at the initial stage of the Young Turks Revolution, lost his power base in Ottoman Empire politics and later became a Senator in Rumania.

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In the classical Islamic jurisprudence the Jihad is defined as ‘to expend one's life, wealth, and words in the war or the defence against infidels’. But after the collapse of the Ottoman Caliphate, the political situations of the Islamic world drastically changed, which called various responses among Muslim intellectuals. Faraj, the ideologue of the Egyptian ‘Jihad’ group demonstrates that contemporary rulers apostatize from Islam because they do not rule according to the shari'a. So it turns to be individual obligation for Muslims to go jihad against the apostate rulers, for the jihad against apostates is to precede that against native infidels and the near enemy is more dangerous than the distant. But the jihad against the rulers has now no hope to succeed, so Shaikh 'Abdulgadir, a member of the ‘Jihad’, argues that the military training for the jihad is incumbent on every sane adult Muslim who has the necessary equipments and that Muslims should elect a qualified commander by lack of the caliph.
Dr. 'Umar 'Abdurrahman, the mentor of the ‘Jama'a Isldmiya’, who classifies the rulers of the Muslim states into six categories, distinguishes the contemporary ruler from the traditional types of rulers and coins the word mustabdil for that. He concludes that the mustabdil is infidel and consequently has no legitimacy to rule and that Muslims must rise against him. Abu Ithar, Dr. 'Umar's disciple refines the conception of mustabdil and proves that the war against a mustabdil is not the rebellion which is one of the hudud crimes, but Muslim's duty.
Thus the fight against evil rulers is justified both in the framework of the jihad theory by Faraj and 'Abdulgadir, and in the discussion about the legitimacy of the caliph by Dr.' Umar and Abu Ithar.
The ‘revolutionary jihad theories’ radically differ from the classical theory of the jihad and the caliphate. In the classical Islamic jurisprudence the jihad is defined as the war against infidels and strictly separated from the notion of apostasy which is one of the hudud crimes. The caliphate theory is inserted in the chapter of the rebellion in the Islamic jurisprudence, so that it serves mainly for the justification of the temporal ruler and excludes the possibility of discussing the caliph's apostasy.

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In a culture where women are secluded behind the veil, their words as an extension of themselves are not supposed to be heard. It is not surprising, therefore, that throughout the history of Persian literature only a few women could display their literary creativity.
The Qajar princess, Taj os-Saltaneh, completed her memoir in 1914. It is one of the oldest book-length prose writings written by a woman. Its prose style which plausively modeled itself on Western novels, the criticism on existing political and social situations including the problems of women and the tension between author's Westernized idealism and the conventional society, proved this memoir to be the forerunner of women's prose literature.
It was not until 1948 that the first woman writer, Simin Daneshvar, appeared in Iran. She gained the critical recognition by Savushun (1969), a best seller for two decades. In her fictive world, the element of “literary commitment” not playing an integral part, the experience of an ordinary woman is portrayed in a vivid and moderate way.
Shahrnush Parsipur's Tuba and the Meaning of Night (1989) is one of the most important novels after the Islamic Revolution. This novel has dual structure; one is the story of an Iranian woman lived between two Revolutions, and the other is a unique explanation of the history of human beings. By the latter, the author seems to show the matriarchal world that lies underneath the male-centered society.
Women writers have been making their effort to find their place in Iranian culture which is, as a critic put it, “made by men for men”.

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Under the reign of Zimri-Lim, a variety of textiles were produced in Mari, sometimes to be sent as gifts to neighbouring allies. The textile manufacture was one of the key industries in Mari. The palace controlled large textile workshops, which were wellestablished in the beginning of Zimri-Lim's reign. Their workers were neatly organized into groups, and the organization was rather fixed. These groups can be classified into two types: (1) groups each of which was composed of two teams, a team of female weavers and a team of male fullers, and (2) groups, mainly consisting of special type of craftsmen, LÚ. TÚG. DU₈. The groups of the former type tended to specialize in manufacturing either luxurious textiles or ordinary ones, and their members were chosen according to its speciality. The groups of the latter type were responsible for finishing, such as ornamentation and dyeing.

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