Problems, and Methods to handle them.
(1) the date when this conception appeared.
This subject must be considered not only by a text-critical method (Otto Eissfeldt), but also by a tradition-historical one (Martin Noth).
(2) the interpretation of this conception.
This conception is interpreted symbolically (H. J. Kraus) or mythologically (S. Mowinckel).
(3) the reason why this conception is held back from mentioning it in the Old Testament.
This problem must be considered by understanding the nature of internal-external attitude the Israelite cultivated in “Amphietyony”. (Jdc. 8: 22-33, 9: 1-57).
Conclusions.
(1) This conception appeared in the age when the Isralite formed “Amphictyony” and yet not built the kingdom, and they accepted from the Canaanite through the “Entmythologisierung” (G. v. Rad).
(2) Basing on H. J. Kraus's grammatical analysis of “Thronbesteigungspsalmen” and his criticism on S. Mowinckel's opinion, I understood this conception symbolically.
(3) (a) The Israelite acquired the idea of a direct theocracy in the age of “Amphictyony, ” and, as above mentioned, did so through the “Entmythologisierung.”
(b) “The History of Abimelech” symbolizes the tension between the Israelite nature and the Canaanite one. The Israelite felt a resentment against the secular kingship, so they held back from mentioning this conception (Jahwe as King) in the Old testament.

抄録全体を表示

What is Zoroastrianism in the Sasanian period? Of the highest god what ideas did the alleged Zoroastrians make at that time? Among the sources to meet these questions offering many problems difficult to be explained, first we may reckon Pahlavi documents, beginning from the early Sasanian inscriptions, down to the Zand and many other 9th Century books, and secondly those writings in peripheral languages such as Armenian, Syriac, Arabic, etc. Apart from the writings last mentioned, we can rightly refer to, as one of earliest Sasanian documents, Karter's inscriptions in Parsik. But as far as the theological tenets of Zoroastrianism are concerned, only few things decisive may be obtainable. One of them is the supreme God Ohrmazd's opposition against the highest Daimon Ahriman. This opposition can generally be found throughout the whole Zoroastrian literatures in Pahlavi, and even those influenced by Zurvanism can claim no exception of their own.
As is well known, Ahriman goes also under the name of Ganak Menok. It is a Pahlavi rendering of Avest. Ahra Mainyu, of which the Pahlavi trans-literation is Ahriman. Since ganak is derived from gan-‘to strike, to hurt’, Ganak Menok ‘Destructive Spirit’ as such is nothing but a duplicate of Apra Mainyu, apra-<*ahra- in its turn going back to ah- “to destruct”. Ohrmazd <Ahura Mazda has also an appellative Spenak Menok or Spannak Menok, and is sometimes characterized with aßzonik “strengthening”. Spenak, Spannak or aßzonik is an opposite conception of ganak “destructive”. Thus, in its meaning Spenak Menok comes true to the characteristics of Ohrmazd, while in its morphology it points rather to Avest. Spenta Mainyu. In Pahlavi literatures, Ohrmazd is equal to Spenak Menok, Ahriman to Ganak Menok, and therefore Ohrmazd is to Ahriman what Spenak Menok is to Ganok Menok. This last equation, however, we cannot point out in the Gaθas.
In Yasna 30, Spenta Mainyu as Speništa M. is opposed to Apra Mainyu as dregvant mainyu. The chapter seems to state that when the primitive whole, not divided yet, had discrimination as a result of its natural course, they, the Speništa Mainyu and the dregvant One created life and death, and elected the realization of Truth (aša) and that of Falsehood respectively. But the Speništa Mainyu is not Ahura Mazda himself, In Yasna 43₆, Ahura Mazda is requested to come to the judgement, ‘along with your (i. e. Ahura Mazda's) Spenta Mainyu’. The Supreme Lord created, throuph Spenta Mainyu, cow, water and plants (Yasna 5/7), therefore He being ‘Creator of all through Spenta Mainyu’ (Y. 44₇). To Spenta Mainyu is dedicated Yasna 47 where the Lord is called ‘father of Spenta Mainyu’ (§3). To his followers Ahura Mazda distributes haurvatat and ameretat, through Spenta Mainyu, Vohu Manah and Armaiti. The said bliss is refered to, not only as heavenly but also, it seems, as earthly (§5). He who deviates from Spenta Mainyu is, therefore, dregvant, and not ašavan (§4): the ašavan does his best —in words and deeds— for the sake of Speništa Mainyu (§2). Ahura Mazda may well be said World's Healor and Friend through this Spirit (Y. 44₂). Most probably Geuš tašan ‘Creator of Cow’ in Yasna 29 can be identified with this Spirit (Mainyu, Spenta Mainyu, Speništa Mainyu). With these statements we can safely say that Ahura Mazda and Spenta Mainyu is not one and the same Spirit, and that, of many ahuras, Spenta Mainyu is in a most intimate relation with the Supreme Lord, the activities of whom, the creation and the judgment, as well as the establishment of law are done through Spenta Mainyu. Opinions may be varied as to wh

抄録全体を表示

In dieser Abhandlung sammelte ich die Stellen über die caesarischen Armeen im Osten in den Jahren 48/47 vor Chr. Zwar hat man bisher Caesars Legionen ziemlich eingehend untersucht. Aber die Hilfstruppen wurden dabei weniger beachtet. Mich interessierten auch die Hilfstruppen, und zwar in dem Zusammenhang, den ich in der Historia, X, SS. 473 ff. dargelegt habe.

抄録全体を表示

Some provisions concerning the temporary marriage (nikah-e-waqti or mot'ah) are found in the present civil code of Iran. The features of this marriage are as follows:
(1) The term must be specified.
(2) The dowry (mahr) is a necessary condition, but the maintenance is not always necessary.
(3) The period of waiting for marriage ('iddah) is very short (only 45 days).
(4) The mot'ah wife is not entitled to inheritance.
(5) Mot'ah ends on the expiration of the term.
Generally speaking, the social status of the temporary wife is inferior to that of permanent wife. However, we hesitate to agree with the opinion that mot'ah is a legalized prostitution.

抄録全体を表示

Marco Polo in the 13th century left for us a story that in some part of Persia gold symbolizes an earthly king, frankincence a god and myrrh a physician. This story is closely connected with the tale of the three Magi (wise men), in the Gospel of Matthew (11-2, 10, 12), who came from the East when Jesus was born and offered three gifts, gold and frankincence and myrrh.
The perfumery of the Ancient Orient was represented by frankincence and myrrh which are the products of the south-east part of Arabia and of Somaliland on the opposite side of the Red Sea. The fact that these two were recognized as god and physician expresses explicitly the way of recognition of the peoples of the Ancient Orient toward the perfumery. And though the using of two kinds of perfumes, incense and cosmetics, have been commenced, both of them were thought and consumed as divine things. At the point that they were never used as humane incense and cosmetics, the characteristics of the ancient oriental perfumery are recognized.

抄録全体を表示