In this paper, the authors have investigated the pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), which is included as one of knowledge bases for teaching offered by and based on Lee Shulman. Firstly, we analyzed the nature of PCK based on essential literature. Secondly, we investigated the facts concerning lower secondary science teachers in Japan by qualitative and quantitative surveys. We have identified that PCK is a complex knowledge based on six teachers' knowledge, and that experienced science teachers' PCK may differ considerably from novice science teachers. We think that the conceptualization of PCK can be a powerful tool for understanding science teaching and may be useful in and pre-service science teacher education.

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This study was performed to determine whether keywords (KW) and key sentences (KS) can be used as objective indicators for sentence evaluation by comparing these parameters determined from evaluation results and potential meaning analysis by an essay evaluator. This study was performed using two types of experimental sentence, including a total of 12 patterns-five patterns of "surface change sentences," which are sentences where KW and KS obtained by Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) of a particular sentence (original sentence) are changed, and 7 patterns of "compositional change sentences", where sentence composition is altered by changing the order of the paragraphs. These sentences were used as essay evaluation problems, which were solved in the following order: (1) Evaluation of original and experimental sentences; (2) KW and KS selection when these sentences were comprehended and evaluated. The results indicated that KW are applicable to judging the content rather than the quality of the essay, and KS correspond to those valued by human readers during evaluation.

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Students sometimes fail to give a theory-based explanation of phenomena after they learn scientific principles. The present study investigated the optimum method to train students in scientific thinking in elementary school science lessons. We conducted three experimental lessons to foster students' meta-understanding of scientific principles about combustion. Sixth graders collaboratively inquired into the difficult-to-understand phenomena of combustion for a theory-based explanation. Based on students' achievements in the previous year, the curriculum had been improved twice. At the end of the lesson, students were asked to explain the new phenomena of combustion in a test. We analyzed students' written responses and evaluated their meta-understanding based on two indices: understanding that principles can be applied to any examples, and thinking about phenomena based on that understanding. The results showed that the improvements in the curriculum brought about more elements referred to in the explanations, more students who mentioned all elements, and some descriptions reflecting their reverse reasoning. It appears that the improved curriculum contributed to the enhancement of students' meta-understanding of scientific principles.

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This study examined an effective teaching method to teach a relation figure to fourth graders when solving word problems in elementary school. A relation figure is useful to understand the problem structure when the word problems include a word of "times" in the context. This study focused on three types of word problems called the problem of "proportion", "base quantity" and "the quantity to be compared". The experimental group was given three lessons which included learning a way of drawing a relation figure, solving word problems by using a relation figure and making word problems based a relation figure. The control group was not given any lessons. The result of post-tests showed that the percentage of correct answers on "base quantity" in the experimental group was higher than in the control group, and that the experimental group drew a relation figure when they judged the operation to solve the three types of problems.

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In spite of so much benefit in daily life, some recent international research has indicated that many Japanese students do not understand the benefits of studying science, and subsequently lose interest. For the past seven years, we have held special workshops for primary and junior high school students with technicians who assemble copy machines. The aim of the workshops has been to gain insights into ways of alleviating the current situation. The machines are first dismantled into their constituent parts: lenses, mirrors, switches, sensors, motors, electromagnets, etc. Using these parts, students are next instructed to do some experiments. These experiments represent the core of the workshops. Through them, the students are made aware of the unique role of each part and the importance of electromagnetism and optics. Moreover, to aid their understanding, the students are presented with a demonstration and small lecture by the technicians prior to dismantling the machines. Exit data has indicated that the students enjoyed learning about the functioning of the machines. This year, with the beginning of the science support program, many technical experts are visiting primary schools. In this report, we would like to explain about collaborating with engineers and other experts in science education. Communication between educators and engineers greatly benefits the efficacy of these workshops. Engineers should know more about school and students, and need to give their lessons based on the curriculum. Similarly, teachers should have access to the latest scientific research, and become able to evaluate their lessons accordingly. By working together with engineers, students are better able to achieve scientific literacy.

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We used a solar system simulation in which a space viewpoint and an earth viewpoint are interlocked. The fourth grades learned the changing phases of the moon. Specifically, the following points were practiced. (1) The teacher juxtaposed the monitor of a space viewpoint and an earth viewpoint in the classroom, because students might understand each viewpoint in an integrative way. (2) The teacher moved the viewpoint continuously to make students experience a continuous viewpoint movement. Analysis compared the control group with the experimental group. The following was found. (1) Using the solar system simulation helped students to understand the changing phases of the moon, which needs a Locomoting Viewpoint. (2) Changing the scale in the solar system simulation, helped student to understand the reason why the full moon becomes visible. (3) Using the solar system simulation had the effect of transferring the Locomoting Viewpoint of the moon to other models as well.

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The purposes of this study are: 1) to develop teaching and learning strategies to improve the elementary school third graders' incomplete scientific recognition of "Parallel Shadows of Objects Blocking Direct Rays of the Sun"; 2) to examine whether or not the teaching and learning strategies are effective in improving the elementary school third graders' understanding; and 3) to consider more effective teaching and learning strategies, referring to the findings derived from 1) and 2). The main findings of this study were as follows: 1) before and after the lessons utilizing the strategies, the rate of the children who answered correctly increased about knowledge and ideas of 7 out of 10 items of the questionnaire that identify the effectiveness of these strategies, and the rate of the children who answered all items correctly increased; and 2) it was confirmed that the teaching and learning strategies are effective.

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This research reports on a survey of a tornado made by the junior high school students who clarified the following in their investigation of the damage caused by the tornado. Generation point, way of whirlpool formation, Progress speed and traveling direction, Scale, Diameter, Identity of two kinds of tornadoes distance moved, Influence of river winds and Generation factor. Especially, it is reported that the junior high school students were able to point out the relation between the course of the tornado and the river winds.

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Science Communication is a relatively new academic discipline, just becoming accepted in many universities around the world. The collaboration between a university and a science museum is a powerful way of promoting the communication of science, in that the 'field' and laboratory' experiences attendant on a regular tertiary qualification in science can be provided through the science museum and its public. In this paper, aspects of such collaboration are discussed, with attendant strengths and weaknesses. This discussion takes place within the wider context of science communication as a rapidly developing discipline with its own theoretical frameworks and unique research problems.

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After determining "science communicator" as a person who engages in any kind of science communication for a certain period of time actively, the paper describes how science communicators are educated in universities in Japan, including Hokkaido University. It ends up with pointing out some challenges that any communicators education program should make: creating opportunities for science communicators to get jobs and launching a system which helps communication between them.

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This paper asks questions such as, What is the problem of science communication? What is the role of science communicator working in the media and public relations? I have been involved in the media covering science and environment, and have kept seeking the answer to the question "What should be a science journalist ?" Through my recent work publishing a monthly magazine of science education for public schools throughout Japan, I, as editor, came to understand that there are some kinds of features and restrictions among different media. The right positions that every science communicator should adopt are shown here. He or she is expected to write and report, sharing queries on why with a sense of puzzle. He or she is also expected to write using his or her own words and expressions, is furthermore expected to contribute solutions to regional issues.

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In the last century, researchers could concentrate on producing new scientific knowledge without paying much attention to how it was to be used in society. Science and technology have made remarkable progress, contributing greatly to raising people's living standards. But the benefits have come at some cost, including negative effects on the environment. Times have changed, and the notion of "science for society" is now widely accepted by both researchers and science policy makers. Irresponsible behavior by researchers under the name of freedom of research is no longer tolerated. Researchers are now required to evaluate the social effects of their research and explain them and communicate with the public in plain language. In the reality of the mega-competition and post catch-up era, innovation is the only means for Japan to resolve existing constraints, continue sustainable growth and survive with a declining population. We need reforming our less than-functioning science and innovation system, including universities, academic societies, the research funding system and the relationship between science and society. Mutual communication is necessary between these areas, if science-based innovations are to be nurtured and accepted by society.

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A Japanese boom of science communication beginning in 2005 shares some characteristics with advanced countries. This paper explores the background of a sudden boom of science communication in Japan into the struggle, common to advanced countries, for redefining the roll of technoscience in society. Firstly, it is shown that there are two kinds of motivations which triggered the boom of science communication. The first one is an erosion of public trust in experts of technoscience in the 90s. The second one is the changing role of technoscience from a symbol of national prestige to a tool of economic growth. Then, the characteristics and challenges for Japanese science communication activities are discussed.

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To investigate the impact of science communication in science museums, the author points out the importance of surveys on the outcome of "museum experiences" of the people engaged in the communication, from the long-term point of view in the wide context The author stresses the focus on the experience covering the affective phase of learning, in addition to its cognitive phase. Examining the survey of "Memories of Visiting Science Museums" conducted by the author and previous surveys abroad, surveys of "long-term memories" of museum experiences are proposed as an important tool to identify the impact of science communication on people.

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Recently, training programs for science communicators have been initiated in Japan. Taking the case of The National Museum of Nature and Science, this paper examines the significance and issues of training programs for science communicators conducted collaboratively by science museums and universities. First, it clarifies the scope of science communication, the features of science communication in science museums, and the expected competencies of science communicators. It then clarifies the need for professional development, career path establishment, and the sustainable management of programs in the training of science communicators. Finally, it recommends that the collaboration between science museums and universities should develop the expertise of science communicators, and be linked to the training of human resources to become leaders of science education in local communities.

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Japanese science education has failed to have students value learning science. Science learning assisted by science communication is expected to improve students' valueing science learning. This study aimed to find effects of science communicationassisted learning on students' valueing science learning by conducting a correlational study. Over twenty thousand students from grade 5 to grade 12 in a total of 240 schools randomly selected in Japan participated in a questionnaire survey. Findings showed that students who have had opportunities of the following activities that can be characterized as a science communication assisted-learning tend to value learning science more than students who have not: (1) learning science from visiting scientists, (2) learning science by visiting science museums, (3) conducting a scientific research project. The author further discusses how to promote science communication-assisted learning.

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This article aims to clarify the process of how a learning support community is created and explores ideas about leadership or relationship among different kinds of social actors in the community. The city of Nishinomiya in Hyogo is focused on to describe the tasks. From the case study in Nishinomiya, it is suggested that the social actor, which may show leadership among the community, will (1) plan and carry out educational undertakings, (2) involve other actors to conduct educational activities and (3) control several kinds of educational activities and provide information with other communities. It is also noted how social actors associate with each other on equal terms. Some of them, like a local government, a NPO and business firms, led the environmental education service to promote raising funds, performing their principal occupation, and running their own business. On the other hand, school teachers or children and the citizens had opportunity to appeal their projects, which show their learning purpose or their own interests. In sum, they could improve their motivation to be involved with educational projects for environmental awareness. The above issues point to the notion that each social actor obtains some benefit to link with their principal occupation by engaged in environmental education activities.

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In this study, we propose science communication through Kodomo-kai Children's community activities. The answers are provided by 113 of 211 'Youth Ambitious Squares', which are Kodomo-kai Children's community activities registered in Fukuoka prefecture. 26% of them held science activities. The staff try to meet the demands that children request as many science experiment activities as possible. They have some difficulties, however, the staff have no confidence in carrying out science activities, and they want guidance from experts. On the other hand, the Kodomo-kai which could not carry out science activities said that they do not have enough time or human resources for planning science activities. They did perceive problem areas about science such as ferminology, calculation, requiring effort. We assisted Kodomo-kai Children's community activities in holding science activities for both types of Kodomo-kai. We discuss their difficulties to get solutions, and plan activities to make manuals dealing with their difficulties.

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Recently, the importance of science communication has been frequently discussed in Japan. For the popularization of science communication, several courses of science communication training have been established under the cooperation of universities, museums, journalism, etc. However, the science communicators cultivated in such courses are not sufficient for conducting nation-wide science communication activities. The principal abilities required in science communicators are a good understanding of science, an ability to teach science, and an ability to communicate corresponding to the age and developmental stage of the targeted individuals. In the curriculum of a teaching training college, students are required to master the latter two abovementioned abilities. In the science course of a well-established Japanese teaching training college, students study pure sciences for their graduation thesis, and learn the skills of investigation as well as manipulation of scientific instruments over a long period of time. Moreover, they have practice-teaching periods thrice during their curriculum, wherein they practice the teaching methods and also the modes of communication directed toward various groups of children. We prepared opportunities, namely extramural courses, which enable students to combine their accumulated abilities. Further, a questionnaire survey indicated that these trials were effective for the promotion of public awareness of science.

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Doing Science Communication at school is an innovation from traditional science education to a mutual lifelong science learning. In concrete terms, innovations are needed in the learning community and the participation model. In this model the roles of teachers are to be partners with students in the study of science and to be cultural mediators. To design this learning environment, teachers ought to link students with other kinds of scientific communities outside the school, and create a scientific community at school to carry out cultural and integrated practice while also reconstruct both. That is, there is a need to Network and Localize scientific learning at the same time. For this purpose, the role of the school library needs to be reconsidered. The school library can be a node of various kinds of cultures, a good device to embody the learning community and the participation model, to carry over the history of learning, and to be able to access information at any time.

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Museum learning support for visitors, especially for novices, has not been sufficient because of the lack of a supporting model. According to previous work, museums should offer discrete points that are organized into chunks for helping their visitor interpret objects. However such an posteriori support seems still difficult for novices, because they have a lack of overall knowledge relating each point. Therefore, we advanced a suggestion that such novices should be taught object meanings from abstract ideas to more concrete points. We called such interpretation as a deductive methodology of museum learning support, and developed a webpage where learners can learn exhibition meanings by deduction. We evaluated the learning effects of the webpage comparing 4th grade pupils (age: 9-10) from two public schools; pupils of one school used our webpage beforehand and pupils of the other attended their teachers' pre-visit class. Both groups went to a museum, and noted down everything they thought in the museum. As a result, pupils who learned from the webpage could describe more original ideas than pupils who took a pre-visit class by their teacher. From this result, our webpage seems to make pupils learn the meanings of objects more strategically, which also leads to independent learning.

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A science outreach program in currently-developing biotechnology for secondary school students, school teachers, and citizens was attempted for better science communication. For secondary school students, the textbooks were developed by scientists and school teachers in collaboration, and the actual classes were also operated under their cooperation. In school teacher training, the textbook and the experimental methods were devised to be available for classroom use without any modification. For citizens, simple and easy methods were adopted and performed at science cafe, so that the visitors can enjoy the excitement. It has been identified to be important for better science communication that scientists should understand the students', teachers', and citizen's situation and their levels of knowledge, and that collaboration of scientists and school teachers is extremely effective in classroom outreach.

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The purpose of this study is to investigate how the Technorama Science Center in Switzerland supports teachers in terms of the development of a teacher education program using science museums and centers. As a result, it was suggested that guidebooks, leaflets, and worksheets for teachers at Technorama Science Center helped to increase the number of visitors. In addition, the following details of the characteristics of the center were revealed: 1. The educational philosophy of the center and reasons for visiting the center were made clear. 2. Information that is important for science communicators such as how to use the exhibit effectively, is published for teachers. 3. The center has two types of training program for teachers. One is held once a month and the other is offered several times a year.

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