国語科教育

This study examined instructions regarding the discussion strategy to promote utilization of the strategy. The learning contents are linguistic strategies such as acceptance and summary. In this regard, such strategies comprise three elements: statement, function, and effectiveness. The instructional method is reflecting on problematic points of students' discussion by transcribing it. Students' cognitive processes from classroom discourse and descriptions by students were collected and analyzed. I clarified that students deeply understood the strategy's effectiveness by reflecting on problematic points. This instructional method was found to be effective in several ways: it specifies the problematic points by transcribing the discussion; utilizes the available strategies to rectify problematic points and confidence of the strategy's usage example; and clarifies the goals of the discussion.

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Over the years, the "appreciation" concept of Minoru Nishio has transformed, and while this study aims to discuss this concept, the term "appreciation" also needs to be analyzed historically from the national language perspective; thereby emphasizing prewar Japanese literature. Hence, I demonstrate a point in time wherein a transition concerning "independence of the appreciation" was determined. This transition was used as the grounds to allow the debating of literary education with Motoki Tokieda, which occurred before the educational practices of Shigeru Araki, particularly in a domain mainly comprising the literature education theory of Nishio by following the generation process of the "appreciation" concept from prewar days. During the prewar era, significant attention was paid to and debates were conducted on "the appreciation" in Japanese literature. Thus, demonstrating that the "appreciation" idea of Okazaki probably influenced this background, which promoted the discovery of the concept. "The appreciation" depicted the characteristics of the times, and it also was the term that strongly reflected the educational philosophy of each debater.

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In this article, I discussed the cooperative and individual learning processes of conditional knowledge through analyzing the comprehension strategies instruction for junior high school students when reading expository texts. For the purpose of this study, the self-regulated learning theory was emphasized. The results showed that the cooperative learning process of conditional knowledge is a four-phase process: (a) planning and applying pre-existing comprehension strategies through task analysis, (b) becoming aware of comprehension difficulties and the causal attribution of strategies by setting an advanced goal, (c) providing instruction on declarative knowledge to resolve the difficulty, and (d) explaining conceptualized procedural knowledge to enhance understanding. In addition, two courses of individual learning processes of conditional knowledge were identified. First, significant learning occurred when declarative knowledge was used to scaffold students. Second, greater understanding was gained when students experimentally explained procedural knowledge. Under the latter circumstance, more students could learn conditional knowledge because it resulted from an interactive process among peers.

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This study confirmed that writing education changed to skill education during the early Meiji era. The subject of penmanship was altered to include two separate topics of the intellectual education during the Edo era. It was divided into "Shuji-ka" (penmanship) and "Sakubun-ka" (composition) in the lower courses, whereas in the advance courses, these topics were unified by the letter-writing education of the "Gakusei" educational system in 1872. Until the 1870s, "Shuji-ka" retained both composition and intellectual education functions; however, in the 1880s, these functions were lost. This was due to the utilitarianism and penmanship theories of Western spread in Japan. Therefore, it was acquired only through practical use and eliminated as a function of language education.

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