According to the historical studies the family has its own behavior patterns and human relations. Basically the functions of the family are production and consumption, but beyond that the family also functions in the bringing up and educating of the next generation in such a way that the special characteristics of the particular family are carried forward. In that way it plays its part in the transmission of the culture pattern. To carry out these functions, merchants in the Tokugawa Era created their own system and method of education from the standpoint of their class. The purpose of this article is to determine the educational structure in the merchants' family system, within the confines of feudalism of those days. As a result of uncertainty in politics, the "Ie" or Kinship Origanization in Japan has carried the burden of social security for its members rather than the government, and this has been so since ancient times. This has produced an abnormal attachment to the maintenance and prosperity of the "Ie", we might call it "Ie"-egoism. Through the "Ie" children have learned their manners, have learned to appreciate and maintain the order of status in the family, so that its sole heir would succeed to the family estate, thus maintaining the rights of the head of the house. We can find a concrete expression of the "Ie" in the "Kagyo". It was the "Kagyo" meaning the enterprise or occupation of the family, which was the foundation of existence and embodiment of the Idea of the "Ie". So merchants displayed the utmost concentration and care in the training of the heir of the House, called the "Soryo", and of the other members of the family in order to bring them up to become competent merchants. For their training activities, their methods and the content of instruction, the merchants drew on their worldly wisdom and their strong traits of character, in which they excelled in their class. This we have pointed out in this artcle in our investigation of the apprenticeship established as the training system of merchant guild. We have also examined the ideology of the "Ie" revealed as the principle of discipline in the "Kakun" or family code.

抄録全体を表示

The village school of the Mito Clan cannot be neglected from the historical point of view, as the clan itself played an important role in the period of the Restoration. During 53 years, from 1804 (1st year of Bunka) to 1857 (4th year of Ansei), fifteen village schools which had been established at important points of the clan were managed both by the government and by the people. As time went on, the village school system was given support and promoted forcibly by the government. Celebrated persons of the village were appointed "Kan-mori" (master of the school) and given an allowance for the responsible post. Persons in charge of the school ("Goko kakari") were chosen from among country warriors ("Goshi"), upper officials, and Shinto priests who were usually opinion leaders of the village and had an interest in education. They were made to co-operate with the government in the administration of the school. Teachers, as well as the "Kan-mori" (masters), had an ordinary meeting once a month and a general meeting in the spring and autumn. On such occasions lecturers were sent from "Hancho" (the government of the clan) and "Kodokan" (the Institute of the Clan for "Widening the Way")- But sometimes learned persons of the country gave lectures. The characteristic common to all these fifteen village schools was that they had a good number of well-chosen books. Some schools had libraries of their own. Most of the books were bought with money contributed, by the people. Before 1856, it was the chief purpose of the village schools to train country doctors and give a sort of moral education to the influential persons in order to make them leaders of the villages which had been in a state of extreme desolation in those days. Therefore, the government forced them to be present at school as a duty. The tendency was more developed at the time when nine village schools were established in addition in 1856 and 1857. These schools were called "Goko" (the village schools) and "Bumbu-kan" (the institute for literary and military arts) with the village name in front of them. As the title of the school suggests, these schools were equipped with exercise-halls and grounds for military training, including archery grounds. Not only that, the formerly established village schools also had their own exercise-halls, archery grounds, etc., in the face of troubled conditions toward the end of the feudal system, after the opening of our country for foreign intercourse. At this time of the development a large number of farmers who had been made "Nohei" (farmer-soldiers) were given miritary training in the village schools. The government designed to make them work together with the Exclusionist Party of the Mito Clan. But as the central political situation became unstable after the wholesale arrest of the Ansei era and the struggle between "Tengu-to" (the Exclusionist Party) and "Shoseito" (the Conservative Shogunate Party), the village schools were the scene of the political activities of the Exclusionists and many were destroyed in the course of the bloody battles. In January, 1865 (1st year of Keio), when the Shogunate Party gained a victory and re-organized the clan government, the announcement was made to close the village school. But afterwards the Shfigunte Party was defeated and the movemenr of the Restoration was accomplished. Then after the abolition of clans and establishment of the prefectures, in the Prefecture of Ibaraki as well, on the introduction of the new educational system, the elementary schools were opened and the old village schools were re-organized as elementary schools. At any rate, the village schools of the Mito Clan lived and died in company with the vicissitudes of the Clan itself and their growth and decline will be worthy of notice especially from the viewpoint of educational history.

抄録全体を表示

The WAGAKU KODANSHO, a sort of school, was founfled in the year 1793 for the purpose of teaching Japanese classics. The first students were enrolled in November of that year. A noteworthy fact about this school is that one person who contributed a great deal toward bringing it into existence was a blind man by the name of Hokiichi HANAWA, a great scholar of his time. Although the Shogunate government gave material assistance to the founding of the WAGAKU KODANSHO, it managed to retain, to some extent, the character of a private institution. Two years after the school was actually started the Shogunate government began supporting the school financially and, at the same time, placed it under control of the Daigaku-no-kami (President of Shoheizaka Gakumonjo) HAYASHI. In other words, the school became an institution directly supervised by the government. A district called BANCHO in YEDO (now Tokyo) was the place where the school was located at first but, later, when the school had grown substantially both in the number of its students and its faculty, it was moved to new buildings erected on a nearby site three times as large in area. Academic activities of the WAGAKU KODANSHO were carried on in its School house, where instruction was given to the students, and in its Bibliographic Office, where books were examined and studied, the schoolhouse being composed of some lecture and seminar rooms. Teachers, though not with official qualifications, were few in number at the start and in its early stage, but about. 1863 the Shogunate government started appointing teachers in the school. It was about this time that the WAGAKU KODANSHO was put on a full-time basis, that is, it was open every day. Until then the school had been open on specified-days only. History and law of the land, bibliography, literature and other subjects were taught in the school, and from this it can easily be imagined that the subject matter of instruction must have been very extensive and substantial in scope. The bibliographic function was continued from the beginning of the WAGAKU KODANSHO but it was in 1808 that the Office was formally instituted as such with a staff of government-appointed bibliographers. Activities of the Bibliographic Office may be grouped under three heads with respect to function. The first included both compilation of chronicles and publishing. The second group related to studies on apparel, garments, annual or special social events, determination of nomenclatures and other matters. The third group included inspection and collection of books, and library management. This famous government-operated school came to its end with the collapse of the Shogunate government, but its functions of chronicle compilation and publishing were preserved by the new government and have been continued to the present day.

抄録全体を表示

This article is a development of a part of my discourse "The Method of Didactic of J.A. Comenius. -A Contribution to its Socialhistoric Interpretation" (In "Sociological Studies",- Annals of the Faculty of Sociology. Hitotsubashi University, Tokyo. 1961, pp. 91〜290) ; in which I endeavoured to show how the Nature-concept in the natural (syncretic) method applied in both the Bohemian "Didaktika" and the Latin "Didactica Magna", meant the laws of "Produktionsprozess" of creatures and mechanical arts, and how the method was applied in order to improve "Produktiv-krafte" of education (i. e. the "production" of humanity). Then I tried to prove, from the 1st and 2nd edition of "Janua Linguarum Reserata", that, when Comenus intended to deduce from Nature organizing as well as teaching methods in education, the "Produktionsweise" of his time was verily reflected in his thinking. In the present article, first I traced the genesis of Comenius' didactic Realism in its relation to his Intuitionalism, beginning with his early treatise, "Sylloge Quaestionum Controversarum e Philosophiae viridario depromptarum", (Herborn, 1613). I inquired into the meaning of the Sensualist thesis, "Nihil est in Intellectu, quod non prius fuerit in Sensu" in its development, in the Bohemian "Didaktika" and the Latin "Didactica Magna" ; and found there that Comenius' Sensualism showed that the object as well as the subject of cognition had its 'real' basis ; this view, being an expression of his point of view which considered the sphere of cognition as part of the sphere of real things as shown in "Jaua Linguarum Reserata", underlay his Realist principle of teaching-method of knowledge. Then I saw the meaning of the didactic Realism of Comenius to be this. It is the way to (1) improvement of "Produktiv-krafte" of education, (2) "Selbstandig-keit" in knowledge-learning, (3) the rejection of Authoritarianism in knowledge-teaching, (4) "Selbstproduktivitat" of learned knowledge, (5) Pansophy, and lastly (6) teaching how to cognize reality as living and developing.

抄録全体を表示

Der preussische aufgeklarte Despotismus war nur eine Abart des seit seiner Entstehung vererbten Absolutismus. Darum erstrebte er als sein hochstes Ziel die Beschutzung seines Standewesens. Friedrich der Grosse und sein Staatsminister Freiherr v. Zedlitz fuhrten diese, in seinem Wesen absolutistsche, aufgeklarte Schulpolitik ein. Zwar siegte v. Wollner uber die Verteidiger der Aufklarung am Ausgang des 18. Jahrhunderts wahrend der Regierung Friedrich Wilhelm II (1786-97), aber er, ein Gegner der Aufklarung, war auch ein absolutistischer Politiker. So wendete er alle ihm zu Gebote stehenden Mittel an, um den Zerfall des absoluten Staates zu retten. Fur diesen Zweck fuhrte er das Abiturientenexamen ein. Durch das Abiturientenexamen sollte verhindert werden, dass zu viele junge, insbesondere arme Leute ohne grundliche Vorbildung den Zutritt zur Universitat erhielten. Damals versuchten die Sohne der Burger und Bauern durch das Studium an den Universitaten ein Amt zuerhalten oder sich von der Militarpflicht zu befreien. Diese Strom zur Universitat, nachdem er einmal angefangen hatte zu fliessen, konnte nicht wieder gehemmt werden. Die preussische Staatsregierung fand ein neues Mittel, namlich die Vorprufung fur die Militarpflichtigen. Die Angst vor dem Militardienst trieb viele junge Leute, die sich sonst einem burgerlichen Beruf zugewendet hatten, auf die Universitaten. Gerade sie stellten die meisten Mitglieder zu dem Gelehrtenproletatiat, uber das so laut geklagt wurde. Das Studium sollte jetzt, so wunschte die Regierung, keinen unbedingten Schutz mehr vor dem Militardienst gewahren ; den Militarpflichtigen sollte der Zutritt zur Universitat erschwert und nur unter gewissen Bedingungen gestattet werden. Man suchte den Grundsatz festzuhalten : jeder bleibe bei seinem Stande ; jeder Stand erganze sich aus seinem Nachwuchs. Das Abiturientenexamen schied die Gelehrtenschulen nach oben von den Universiaten und nach unten von den Burgerschulen ; und die Vorprufung der Militarpflichtigen verdrangte die Sohne der niederen Klassen aus den Gelehrtenschulen. So entstand das offentliche, aber standische Bildungswesen Preussens. Diese Abhandlung ist ein Teil meiner Studien, die auf die geschichtliche Erforschung der preussischen Erziehungspolitik zielen. In der nachste Abhandlung behandle ich die Teilnahme und Wirkung der preussischen Intelligenz fur die oben erwahnten Erziehungspolitik.

抄録全体を表示

China entered into its Modern era, when it encountered Western Europe, beginning with the Opium War in 1839. The first step of the modernization of the Chinese school system was taken in the proclamation and the enforcement of "Ch'in-ting Hsueh-t'ang Chang-Ch'eng" by the Ch'ing government in 1903. Conventional studies of modern Chinese educational history have done research in both the institutional history and the history of thought for the time of the abolition of the old system for securing government officers and the establishment of the Chinese Republic in 1912, or the 5・4 movement in 1919. The abolition of the old system of "K'o-chu" (1905) was a consequence of the school system of 1903. Most of the conventional studies have appeared to be large-scale surveys. Studies on the history of political thought at the end of Ch'ing period are fairly advanced. However studies of educational history have not yet fully adopted the fruits of the studies on the history of political thought, so that they have tended to be mere descriptions or lists of governmental documents. Above all, it was a serious defect that the studies failed to discover and make use of the original materials which disclose the contents and practice of the "New Education" after its introduction in 1903. The autobiographic "School Diary" (1911) by Hsu Chih-mo (1895〜1931), who "was the Chinese bourgeois and first, as well as the last, poet" was written when he was sixteen years old at Che-Chiang-hsing Hang-fu Chung-hsueh-t'ang, at the time of the collapse of Ch'ing government. The diary tells us about the curriculum of the first grade at a secondary school under the system of 1903, the daily contacts between students, teachers and proctors, and especially, the reflection of the great excitement about the advance of the revolutionary movement on school-life. This diary by an intellectnal student gives a clear picture of a facet of the changing period on the eve of the establishment of the Chinese Republic. In this sense, this book is an important source material for intensive studies of the modern history of Chinese education.

抄録全体を表示