Historically, the Japanese child grew up enveloped by close human relationships. Those relationships, however, have become looser over time, and they continue to grow less intense. How can people restore the type of relationship that enables them to sympathize and connect with others? The present study explores this question from the standpoint of the history of educational thought, seeking an answer in the thought of the kokugakusha (national scholar) Motoori Norinaga (1730〜1801), especially in his emotionalist view of humanity. That human beings sympathize with others on the level of sensibility was Norinaga's basic premise. This study's particular topic is Motoori Norinaga's cultural formation in the context of his stay in Kyoto. In his twenties, he spent five and a half years in Kyoto for the purpose of studying medicine. Actually, he not only engaged in medical studies but took full opportunity to explore Kyoto's cultural scene, including the kabuki theatre and a variety of other diversions. During his stay in Kyoto, Norinaga kept a diary. At first, he wrote the entries in kanbun (classical Chinese). Eventually, however, he changed to a pure Japanese style. This paper pays particular attention to this change of writing style. The main conclusions made in this essay are as follows: 1. Norinaga's emotionalist view of humanity was not peculiar to him but derived from popular culture, including such entertainments as the joruri and kabuki theatres. In other words, he reflected what those popular entertainments had projected since the Genroku period as the "true" feelings of ordinary people. 2. During his time in Kyoto, Norinaga constructed an intellectual platform for his rejection of the Confucian view of humanity by a sublimation of the everyday feelings of urban people, emplacing their view of humanity within the classical tradition of court culture. 3. Norinaga attributed an especially great meaning to Waka poetry. Indeed, he was able to formulate his own ideology based on views of humanity that were founded on Waka criticism.

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This article analyzes information on Western education contained in several records, namely "A British Inquiry," "A Dutch Inquiry," "A French Inquiry," "A Prussian Inquiry," and "A Portuguese Inquiry" (called collectively "A European Inquiry" hereafter), found in The Notes of Fukuda Sakutaro (27 vols.). This work, housed in the Historiographical Institute The University of Tokyo, was recorded during the Tokugawa shogunate's 1861 mission to Europe. This article discusses the following : 1. The legation of the 1861 mission and the inquiry into European educational systems; 2. The participation of Mitsukuri Genpo in the inquiry into European educational systems ; 3. Circumstances surrounding the composition of The Notes of Fukuda Sakutaro ; 4. Information about the establishment of schools and forms of administration as described in "A European Inquiry ;" 5. Information about national educational systems as described in "A European Inquiry;" 6. Information about schools of every country visited during the Mission as described in "A European Inquiry." There are five particular points made in this article. First, The Notes of Fukuda Sakutaro has not been used as a source prior to this, with the exception of "A British Inquiry," published in Seiyo Kenbunshu (A Collection of Observations of the West), in Nippon Shiso Taikei. vol. 66. Second, it was exactly ten years later that the new Meiji Ministry of Education followed in the footsteps of the Tokugawa Shogunate and began its own investigation of educational systems. The 1861 mission, in addition to its primary function of improving foreign relations, included an inquiry into European matters, under orders to "conduct an investigation into each nation's government, educational system, and military organizations with particular care." In other words, the 1861 mission was Japan's first investigation into the state of Western education, and "A European Inquiry" was the formal report. Third, it was likely because of the involvement of Mitsukuri Genpo, chief instructor of the shogunate's Bureau of Western Learning, that educational systems came to be the most important topic for the 1861 mission's inquiries. At that time, Mitsukuri Genpo, with his strong connections to shogunal leaders, was the scholar most familiar with Western education through his knowledge of Dutch and Chinese translations of foreign books. Fourth, this article discusses the analysis of the surveys of various European countries included in "A European Inquiry," on topics like the establishment of schools and the forms of administration, administrative and educational expenses. Fifth, this paper analyzes information regarding various European states' national educational systems. Information about countries with more fully developed systems, namely Prussia and the Netherlands, is particularly abundant.

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This paper will explore Eto Shinpei's educational plan, discussing the political process that brought expression this plan and its significance in the history of educational policy. Eto was essentially the first leader of the Meiji period Ministry of Education, and it is well known that he accomplished many important educational reforms. Through a better understanding of Eto's plan for educational policy, we obtain clue that helps to reveal the direction of modern Japan's educational policy in its infancy. The primary characteristic of Eto's plan for education was its division of education into dogaku and geigaku. Dogaku was comprised of subjects related to religion and morality, while geigaku consisted of subjects related to science and technology. Eto tried to apply this plan to educational policy. This paper makes the following conclusions : 1. The representative historical document regarding Eto's plan, "Gakko no Gi" (Regarding Schools), was written when the University was closed. His plan was not completely original; previously established university policy and Eto's division of education complemented one another well. 2. Eto's educational plan, including "Gakko no Gi," was often expressed in various government settings. This is important proof supporting the premise that Eto took part in the formation of the educational policy. Because his plan was accepted within the government to some degree, it can be understood that Eto participated in policymaking. 3. Eto, who was involved in the establishment of the Ministry of Doctrinal Instruction as well as the Ministry of Education, declared that jurisdiction over education should be divided ; geigaku should be overseen by the Ministry of Education, dogaku by the Ministry of Doctrinal Instruction. Because this plan appeared in a statement published by the Meiji government's legislative body, the Sain, it can be seen that Eto's ideas had some influence on educational policy formation.

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This paper will show local community expectations for public schools which realistically appear in the school visit by the Emperor Meiji in the Imperial Tour. This paper pays particular attention to the 1876 Imperial Tour. There is a great deal of previous research regarding the Imperial Tours performed in the Meiji period. The majority has studied the Imperial Tours from the government's perspective. The Emperor's visits in the Meiji period, however, were also significant occasions for those being visited. This paper approaches the topic by using Koriyama Elementary School as a case study. Koriyama Elementary School was the first public elementary school visited by the Emperor after the enactment of the 1872 Education System Order. This paper will seek to answer the following questions : 1. In the establishment, the administration, and the realization of the Emperor's visit, what kind of expectations regarding the school were held by the local community? 2. After Imperial Tour, how did the school pass on the fact of the Emperor's visit? This paper attempts to describe the ways in which the people involved with the establishment, the administration, and the realization of the Emperor's visit understood the school and the Emperor. The expectations for public school that were based on local interests showed themselves in all their honesty in the process of the realization of the Emperor's visit. The following conclusions are made in this paper : 1. In the establishment and administration of the school, Koriyama Elementary School accepted the financial assistance of wealthy merchants and supporters. On the occasion of the Emperor's visit, Wealthy merchants and supporters recognized the school as symbol of local industrial development and civilization grounded in local interests such as the encouragement of industry, the transfer of prefectural offices, etc. 2. After the Emperor's visit, Koriyama elementary school passed on the "fact" surrounding the visit by naming the school "KINTOU," although later the name's meaning and significance were interpreted intentionally, depending on the local situation. Previous research has understood that this local "educational enthusiasm" spurred pioneering school architecture and administrative methods. However, this paper clarifies that local community interest and expectations as well as "educational enthusiasm" influenced the establishment and administration of local schools.

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This paper will demonstrate the actual conditions of military exercise in elementary schools. Although there is a great deal of research on military exercise in normal schools and junior high schools, there is very little to date on elementary schools. This paper will approach the study of military exercise in elementary school through an examination of the disposition, the use, and treatment of model rifle, the primary instructional aid of military exercise. This research highlights two important features. First, the Ministry of Education only concerned itself with the larger framework of military exercise in elementary schools and did not promote the use of model rifles. Second, regional elementary schools actively accepted model rifles ; they sought to create a sense of reality by demanding model rifles that looked like the real thing. As this paper argues, the reason regional schools accepted the use of model rifles was that they were used during school field trips and ceremonies, not just for military exercise class because those involved with the school were concerned about their appearance, being disposed to worry about how others look upon them. There is one additional point regarding the relationship between children the rifles. The model gun was stored where it could be easily seen by the children, and the children also kept the rifles clean. In this way, an attitude of respect for the rifle was cultivated in elementary school children. The practice of military exercise did not end with the class period, but affected many people in and out of school at various times.

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The purpose of this study is to examine the journal Ryukyu Education (1895 - 1906), published by the Okinawa Private Education Association, and to describe the positive action of teachers, who identified themselves as "Okinawans". There are already several studies on this journal. According to those studies, the nature of education in Okinawa was that of assimilation (kominka), and Okinawan teachers blindly played a crucial role in the Japanese assimilation of Okinawans. However, these studies failed to carefully examine Ryukyu Education, which is one of the most important and fundamental historical documents for this study of this subject. This paper will examine Okinawan education through a careful analysis of all the articles in Ryukyu Education. This paper reaches the following conclusions: First, the journal Ryukyu Education went through three stages. In the first stage, the "member's opinion" section (concentrated on educational thought) comprised the journal's primary focus ; by the third stage, the journal's focus had moved to the "Instruction and Discipline" section (centered on instructional techniques). The majority of writers for the former section were Japanese, while writers for the latter were Okinawan. Essentially, the shift in direction coincided with the participation of Okinawans in the journal Ryukyu Education. Second, although assimilation (kominka) dominated discourse, there arose some conflict regarding the recognition of Okinawan history and language. On the history of Okinawa, most opinion leaders' statements were based on the theory of cultural similarity between Japan and Okinawa (Nichi-ryu-dosoron) that sought to justify the annexation of Okinawa. However, there were many historical facts undermining this theory that some students valued, while some teachers taught Okinawan culture and history. As for the language of Okinawa, most teachers agreed that it should be banned at school, but there were some teachers and students who continued to use Okinawan. Based on these findings, it can be argued that some teachers were uncomfortable with the dominant discourse, reflecting signs of Okinawan of self-awareness.

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The purpose of this study is to explore the textbook revision plan carried out by the Japanese Ministry of Education following the defeat in World War II through an analysis of the investigative process of the organization and personnel selection of the Textbook Committee officially organized on January 9, 1946. The results of this analysis reveal that by making the Textbook Committee central to the textbook revision plan, the Ministry assumed the responsibility for post-war educational reform. The Textbook Committee ordinance was passed by the Japanese cabinet after consultation with Allied occupation forces. Before the ordinance was officially issued, however, the text was revised after further input from SCAP. In the end, this revision reduced the Ministry's influence over the Textbook Committee. Nevertheless, the Ministry retained the power to issue regulations regarding the ordinance as well as control over the selection of committee members. The textbook selection process followed these steps : first, the draft was written by a committee of specialists to create a work with academic prestige. Second, the draft is approved for publication by a full-time and temporary committee who were not only democratically selected but also held authority and the ability to persuade both Japanese and American people. Third, in addition to the investigation of textbook drafts, the committee also had the responsibility to systematically investigate textbook editorial policies. Fourth, the members of the committee were those who understood and agreed to the policies of the Ministry. In summation, under the plans stated above, the Ministry sought to revise existing textbooks and edit new ones in an effort to create a "democratic" government-designated textbook system more suitable to the postwar era. However, the Ministry failed to regain final decision-making authority over textbook drafts, authority the occupation forces kept to themselves. Several requests by the Ministry were definitively rejected by an official SCAP order issued on January 17, causing the failure of the Ministry's textbook revision plan.

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After World War II, university student councils were shaped by the policies of the Japanese government and the Allied Occupation, namely school democratization. However, in many cases, this process was not a smooth one ; many student councils went through a repeated process of division, collapse, and reorganization. DOGAKUKAI of Kyoto (Imperial) University, of central importance to student councils throughout the country, was no exception. What, then, underlay this cycle of division, collapse, and reorganization? This paper will consider the following two points : 1. Problems inherent in the conversion of pre-war gakuyukai, friendship organizations, to student councils. 2. Changing views on university autonomy. This paper, based on these two points, describes the reform of Kyoto (Imperial) University's DOGAKUKAI immediately after the war. This paper also seeks to clarify the cause of confrontation between DOGAKUKAI and other student organizations in the period of growth of student movements. The following conclusions are made in this paper regarding the post-WWII problems of DOGAKUKAI organization. Prior to the war, DOGAKUKAI's relations with school clubs were traditionally strong. Because of this, relations with the faculty's student council were weak after World War II. Also, DOGAKUKAI was greatly influenced by the university president and the professors. These factors prevented DOGAKUKAI from being an organization representative of the entire student body. Regarding the changes in views on university autonomy, in prewar days this referred to the autonomy of the faculty council. DOGAKUKAI seems to have held on to this view of autonomy. However, there were many among postwar students who criticized this outdated view of university autonomy. From this, confrontation occurred between DOGAKUKAI and other student organizations. The university student council took form out of this conflict.

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During the prewar era, many Japanese shrines were built in Japan's colonies, such as Korea and Taiwan. This paper examines the problem of forcing the local residents to go and pay homage to the shrines and to worship the Japanese imperial deities that were supposedly housed therein. The focus of this paper is how Chosen Jingu, built in 1925 and established as a highly-ranked shrine in the Japanese shrines hierarchy, and schools collaborated together to compel elementary school students to visit the shrine. In order to analyze this issue, this paper will examine the case of Kangakusai, one of Chosen Jingu's rituals. In Kangakusai, Chosen Jingu distributed moral training textbooks (Shushin) for first graders in almost all elementary schools in Keijo district, where Chosen Jingu was located. All of the students who received a textbook from the shrine had to go there in order to thank the imperial deities. This shows how shrine rituals like Kangakusai played an important role in the compulsion of students' worship at Chosen Jingu. Behind the enforcement of Kangakusai, one finds the leadership of the chief priests of Chosen Jingu, such as Takamatsu Shiro. In explaining what Takamatsu and other priests did, this paper demonstrates the active role played by shrine priests. They did not merely follow Japanese Government General directives but took a leading role at times in the enforcing the "Japanization" of Koreans. In addition, the mutual reinforcing relationship between shrines and schools enabled primary school students to be the most influenced sector of Korean society. In Japan, much research on colonial shrines focus on the compulsion of shrine worship from the late 1930s to 1945. However, this issue did not begin in the 1930s. This paper seeks to shed additional light on colonial shrine worship prior to the 1930s through an analysis of Kangakusai.

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It was an important problem, how to integrate the content of traditional education and modern education during the modernization of education in the late Qing Dynasty. History, especially Chinese history, was a field riddled with difficulties. In China, history occupied an important place in the traditional education system that was based on Confucian classics comprised of history, literature, and philosophy. However, with the establishment of a modern educational system that categorized learning by subject, new textbooks were written to meet the requirements of the new system. In the late Qing Dynasty, there were a variety of history textbooks in publication and from this it can be determined that various textbooks were then in use. Out of this chaotic situation, history textbooks improved with the promulgation of a modern educational system and the foundation of a textbook screening system created by the Ministry of Education. The Ministry of Education examined existing books used as textbooks, selecting those most appropriate in effort to improve history textbooks through official approval. This paper analyzes articles published by the Ministry of Education, such as "Record of Screening Results" in order to clarify the direction taken to improve history textbooks in the late Qing Dynasty. This paper will also discuss the significance of textbook screening in the modernization of education in China. This paper is divided into four sections : I. The Ministry of Education's general principles of textbook screening ; II. Screening of history textbooks according to the "Record of Screening Results;" III. The characteristic of history textbooks recorded in the "List of Textbooks for Temporary Use;" IV. Improvement of history textbooks resulting from screening. In the first section, I identify the general characteristics of screening. In the second, I clarify the standards for history textbook as they are applied in "Record of Screening Results." In the third, I elucidate the characteristics of history textbooks found on the "List of Textbooks for Temporary Use." In the fourth section, I specifically analyze the ways that textbook screening improved the quality of history textbooks. The Ministry of Education provided the screening for free and actively encouraged the submission of textbooks to screening. The Ministry of Education not only targeted commercial publications but also manuals written by instructors for their own students' use. While not many books were screened, the Ministry of Education made every effort to improve textbooks contents. In addition, the textbook screening categorized books into textbooks, useful reference books, and books not suitable for education, all in order to bring textbooks into harmony with the new educational system. The process of screening redirected the purpose of history textbooks away from traditional education that was primarily based on memorization. In addition, Chinese textbooks of the time were greatly influenced by Japanese textbooks. Through screening, textbooks could be revised to better meet the China's unique situation and move away from mere translations of foreign textbooks. The modernization of education in China was an attempt to synthesize foreign influences and create an independent, indigenous system.

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In the history of modern education in China, the Renxu Educational System, established in 1922, has been regarded as an "imitation of the United States" because of the introduction of the 6-3-3 School System. Prior to the establishment of the Renxu Educational System, Republican China's system was based on the "Japanese model." Therefore it has been the accepted interpretation that the system in operation during the Beijing Government Period of Republican China shifted from a Japanese to an American model. Previous research has determined the leading part played by the Chinese Federation of Educational Associations in the establishment of the Renxu Educational System. However, the role of the Ministry of Education remained a subject that was not addressed. Thus, this article will clarify the Ministry of Education's role in the establishment of the Renxu system. The following three points regarding the role of the Ministry of Education will be explained in this article : 1. In September 1922, the Ministry of Education convened the Chinese Conference on the Educational System. The reason for holding this conference was that the Ministry of Education was under pressure to change the nation's uniform educational system in the face of opposing voices demanding educational reform. In this, both the Ministry of Education and the Chinese Federation of Educational Associations shared the position that it was necessary to change the uniform educational system. 2. At the Chinese Conference on the Educational System, previous educational systems were taken into consideration in the establishment of a new system. Conference participants included many officials from the Ministry of Education as well as educators involved in the field of higher education. Regarding this point, the conference differed from the Chinese Federation of Educational Associations. 3. At the conference, an extension of compulsory education was discussed but not resolved. Instead, a 4-3 Elementary School System and 4-2 Middle School System was accepted in principle out of consideration for earlier systems and local circumstances. Taking into account the Chinese Conference on the Educational System, it is clear that the American model of the 6-3-3 School System was not accepted in toto. Looking at the history of the educational system during the Beijing Government Period of Republican China, it cannot simply be said that it "changed from a Japanese to an American model."

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In 1830s and 1840s Prussia, a heated debate concerning the "Mutual School System", called the "Pedagogical Disputes," erupted between A. Diesterweg and the supporters of this system. Until now, most historical research on education in Germany as well as Diesterweg has not examined the Pedagogical Disputes. This paper seeks to clarify the important place of the Pedagogical Disputes hold in the history of the modern school system in Prussia. In 1808, the Bell-Lancaster System was introduced to Prussia. At first, this system was well received. In 1817, however, L. Natorp criticized the Bell-Lancaster System, arguing that it made instruction and learning mechanical and restricted the instructor's teaching activities. In 1820 the Eckernforde Normal School in Schleswig-Holstein began to operate as a Mutual School System experimental school. The Mutual School System was a modified version of the Bell-Lancaster System that distinguished between instruction and practice; instruction was the responsibility of the teacher, while monitors oversaw practice drills. Because of this, the system was not called "mutual instruction" but "Mutual School" System. The Eckernforde System was soon displayed to many visitors and adopted in Prussia. Early in his career, Diesterweg was one of those who praised the system. In 1827, 1832 and 1835 he expressed appreciation for the system because of its discipline, maintenance of order, its grading system, etc. After an educational journey to Denmark in 1836, however, his attitude toward the system changed. He published his criticisms in a treatise called "An Educational Journey to Denmark." This then began the Pedagogical Disputes between Diesterweg and the system's supporters. While there were many points that were disputed, the key point was centered on teaching organization. Diesterweg criticized the system because the system inhibited the teacher's instruction by dividing pupils into too many groups. Within his criticism there was a grave "misunderstanding" confusing instructional organization with practice organization or the grading, for which he was severely criticized by his opponents. Behind this misunderstanding there was a more important observation concerning teaching organization. This was based on the educational relationship between teacher and pupils, not on relationships between pupils. According to Diesterweg, the teacher-pupil relationship should be based on the teacher's intellect and morality ; in other words, his entire personality. From this point of view, Diesterweg envisioned an instructional organization where one teacher instructs all pupils ("simultaneous instruction"). To this purpose, he proposed to divide a school into several classes ("multi-class school"), each class taught by one instructor. This was an early version of "class instruction" that was to be established in Prussia's elementary school in the 1870s. Diesterweg's ideas sought to combine class instruction with teacher training. Class, simultaneous instruction and teacher training formed a trinity centered on the instructor. It was assumed that class instruction guaranteed a teacher's influence over his pupils because the latter's "attention is paid only to the teacher". Thus class instruction was devised not only as a way of teaching but also as a space where the dual functions of instruction and discipline unfold.

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This paper reconsiders the use of binaries which have long been established in the postwar study of British educational history ; for example, "Church of England vs. Unitarians", "voluntarism vs. the intervention of state power", and "working class people vs. the State." Whereas I recognize the importance of the use of these binaries, this method has overly influenced postwar educational theory, especially the last, represented by the works of Brian Simon. This study investigates the Local Examination, Simon's secret, utilizing historical and legal philosophical approaches as well as paying attention to urban citizens' ownership, community, and militant action. First, the historical features of voluntary education in Devonshire, focusing on local gentry Thomas Dyke Acland, founder of the Local Examination at Devonshire, are analyzed. Second, details of the Local Examination in the year 1857 itself are made clear. Third, the substantial involvement of Rev. Frederick Temple is analyzed. Temple was also a member of the Devonshire gentry who was one of Her Majesty's Inspectors as well as one of those liberal Oxford University professors belonging to Broad Church who led the nineteenth-century university extension. Finally, through a consideration of the historical meaning of the Local Examination and its later extension, some future tasks are proposed. As a result, this study makes clear that there existed a context for reform not only from outside as Simon insisted, but more importantly, also from within the establishment. In particular, it should be emphasized that toleration for the qualification of examination candidates, originating from university reform, to an open competition preceded the conscience clause in the Elementary Education Act of 1870. It also should be noted for further study that education by voluntarism permits "quasi-publicity" (Tatsuo Inoue).

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