The aim of this article is to show the hidden relationship between war and education in the history of Western thought.
In the first chapter we examine and evaluate a thesis developed by Michel Foucault in his lecture at Collège de France, Il faut défendre la société, originally held in 1976 but first published in 1997. According to this thesis, the idea of the struggle between opposing 'nations' or 'societies' within a country, such as between the Normans and the Saxons in England or between the Francs and the Gauls in France played an important role in the formation of modern political and historical thought including Nazism and Stalinism. This thesis can have strong impact to our understanding of modern education.
In the second chapter we examine the classical theory of education represented by Plato's paideia and show the crucial role played by war in this theory. For it is only by comparing the soul with a state (polis) divided by the strife between different classes, that Plato was capable of developing his theory of the inner self. The result is of special interest, because Foucault himself viewed Plato as the arch-enemy of the 'historicism' which stand on the side of the above-mentioned modern theory of war.
Thus, it is not only in the modern educational thought but also in the classical theory of paideia that war played an important role.

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The twentieth century was a century of war. Despite the passionate longing for peace, and the vigorous efforts of many throughout the world community to attain it, war continues to be a part of the human condition. As political efforts to bring an end to war have had few results, humankind has placed its hopes for a world without war on education, hoping that through education the world can raise generations of peaceloving young people who will oppose war. After the Second World War, the charter of UNESCO clearly set out a road to peace and charged educators with a major role in achieving that goal. In spite of all of our good intentions, however, war continues to plague our contemporary world.
As members of the human race we cannot ignore what seems to be an element of human nature that leads to continuous movements that repeat the cycle of “want-seek-struggle-disorder”. Should we then recognize the potential for evil as a part of human nature? Yes, I believe that evil itself is a part of the essential nature of human beings. That being the case, I would argue that :
1. Education was also implicated in the crime of war,
2. Education plays a role in fomenting war.
Education not only imparts knowledge of the good; it also has taught methods of war. We can see this in the fact that as societies become “more civilized”, they also raise the making of war to new levels. We also must acknowledge the fact that religion is also involved in conflicts between nations, and that many wars take place against the background of religious disagreements. As both religion and education are concerned with the formation of the spirit, the relationship between war and religion is a complex one that education has difficulty resolving.
War is a crime against humanity, and moreover necessarily causes spiritual loss. Education is also caught in a contradiction : opposing violence, and at the same time participating in war. If we cannot resolve the paradox between the two, then how can we call for accountability from education? This paper will consider these complex questions and offer some useful suggestions.

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Dieser Aufsatz ist ein Versuch, die klinische Philosophie V. E. Frankls, die “Logotherapie und Existenzanalyse” genannt wird, als den Dienst (therapeía) an “das Werden durch den Sinn (logos)” zu beurteilen, und dann dadurch die Bedeutsamkeit der Erziehung zu vertiefen.
Die Frage nach dem Sinn des Lebens liegt immer schon auf den Boden der menschlichen und zwischenmenschlichen Tätigkeit. Seine klinische Philosophie kann so verstanden werden, daß sie den Begriff “Sinn” “auf die Stätte einer fortwährenden Begegnung des Endlichen mit dem Unendlichen” setzt, und aus diesem Stützpunkt heraus die Menschwerdung zu erläutern versucht. Die “Logotherapie und Existenzanalyse” hat die Bestimmung, seinen eigenen Sinn finden zu lassen. Also hat sie auch die “Besinnung” und “Gesinnung” den Alltag durchsichtig zu machen nämlich durch ihn hindurch sehen zu lassen auf das Ewige und dann auch sehen zu lassen, wie dieses Ewige auf das Zeitliche (das Alltägliche) zurückverweist.
Der Begriff “Sinn (logos)” ist immer schon mit “Leiden (pathos)” unterteilbar in der Wirklichkeit seiner praktische Philosophie. Beide sind zwei Brennpunkte seiner Anthropologie. Aber niemand hat bis jetzt verstanden daß beide “immer schon unterteilbar” sind. Also richten wir hier unseren Buick darauf und versuchen daraus seine Philosophie umzudeuten. Danach werden wir zum Wesen seines Glaubens geführet. “Die Bezogenheit auf ein Unbeziehbares” so erklärte er es in paradoxer Weise. Dieses paradoxe Verhältnis zum Transzendentalen liegt immer schon auf dem Grund der Alltäglichkeit die wir auch mit Kinders zusammen leben. So, was ist im tiefsten Sinn die Gesinnung der fränkische praktischen Philosophie? “Man müsse der Vorsehung eine Chance geben” so sagte Frankl. Das muß der Kern der Gesinnung aller Berufe sein, die die Bestimmung menschlicher Unterstützung haben. Aber in der Zeit der Spezialisierung und des Empirismus wird sie vergissen, auch auf dem Feld der Erziehung.

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It has been self-evidently assumed that children would grow to adulthood through the participation in the adult community. But we can't do so any longer, because the young today have been unsable to feel actually themselves adults beyond twenty years of age. The main purpose of this paper is to clarify what our becoming/being “Adult” means in a social and ethical sense at the present day.
To begin with, we will analyze the mechanism that children heretofore became adult by constructing the transcendental 'Adult' through the interaction of experiential world and conforming themselves to the transcendental 'Adult' as 'the privileged other restored norms.'
Secondly, we will grasp the modern conditions under which we have sought for universal and inclusive norms exhaustively, with the result that the transcendental 'Adult' has emptied, this mechanism has lapsed, and we have faced the difficulty in growing to adulthood.
Finally, we will find out the new way we extricate ourselves from the present blockade and attain becoming/being 'Adult' in the different way from constructing the transcendental 'Adult' as ever. Then, we will suggest that we give up persisting the identity of the self, accept the contingency and changeability of the self actively, and open up the possibilities of communication between ourselves and the other with whom we don't share norms.

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H. Guntrip said that Freud's Ego has two types of thinking, “System Ego” and “Person Ego”, and that D. W. Winnicott the leading figure of the Independent School and the Object- Relations Theory in England deepened the latter. This paper examines his concept of Ego which inherited and further developed Freud's Ego. The author will discuss his theory about Ego with the term “playing” as related from two aspects of the diachronic- developmental and the synchronic- structural.
From the perspective of child- development, Ego comes from the primary world of omnipotence. In this primary world, Me and Not Me are not divided but are merged, so that the relations with objects as Not - Me have not started yet. After the separation of Me and Not- Me, Ego is established. Until Ego takes shape the object- relations do not start.
Ego is the “potential space” which is born in the place between two worlds, the primary world of omnipotence and the existent world of objects. Ego not only divides but also unites both worlds. This paradox has not been resolved in Winnicott's theory. At this point, he uses the term “playing”.
Winnicott's Ego from the synchronic aspect appears as the fusion of the primary world of omnipotence and the world of objects. This fusion shows itself at cultural activities, especially at play. With Freud's case of “Cotton Reel” play or Winnicott's transitional objects, we can find a primitive form of the symbol which reproduces the primary world of omnipotence in the existent objects. These primary symbols have the ambivalent functions; to reproduce the primary world, on one hand, and to promote the separation from it, on the other. That is to say, Winnicott's Ego appears as “playing” in the duality.

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二〇〇二年の学習指導要領によって導入されたばかりの総合的な学習の時間 (総合学習) が危機に瀕している。総合学習を学力低下と直結させる思考の短絡さをあらためて論ずる必要はないだろう。だが、そのような短絡的な発想にもとついて教育政策が進められている現実を見ると、一世紀以上をかけて作り上げられてきた総合学習の理論が一般には理解されていないことを痛感させられる。この点で研究者の努力の不足は認めざるをえない。
このような時に、キルパトリックの教育思想にかんする日本で初めての本格的な研究書が公刊されたことの意義は大きい。言うまでもなく、キルパトリックは、アメリカ進歩主義教育の中でデューイに次いで重要な思想家であり、教育実践上の指導的立場にあった。彼の開発したプロジェクト.メソッドは総合学習の典型であり、大正期から昭和初期に構案法として、我が国でも実施されたことは周知のことである。にもかかわらず、彼に対する評価はわが国では必ずしも高くない。彼の思想はデューイ理論の通俗化とみなされ、プロジェクト・メソッドの実践は反知性主義として批判されることが多い。彼の思想の本格的な研究がほとんどなされないままに、低い評価が与えられ続けてきたのが実情ではなかっただろうか。佐藤隆之氏は、先行研究を丹念に参照しながら、キルパトリックのプロジェクト・メソッド論に焦点を絞って、キルパトリックの思想とプロジェクト・メソッドの論理を解明する。そして、「理想への投企」として、プロジェクト・メソッドの意義を見出すのである。
著者はプロジェクト・メソッドを現代の総合学習に直結させて論じてはいないが、プロジェクト・メソッドは現代の総合学習の一つのモデルであるから、著者がプロジェクト・メソッドの可能性を明示したことは、著者の意図を超えて、総合学習を否定しようとする日本の現状にたいする批判にもなっている。その意味では、本書は現状への問題提起の書であり、総合学習に関心をもつ人々には待望の書である。

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