The field of modern dance has always supported the idea of “creative dance" in physical education. This research study clarifies the contributions of Baku Ishii, Takaya Eguchi, and Masami Kuni to modern dance, and notes their influence on postwar dance education.

Baku Ishii took his guidance from ballet but chose to produce his own unique creative dance that was not an imitation of Western modern dance. He is considered to be the pioneer of Japanese modern dance.

Takaya Eguchi was taught by Mary Wigman in Germany and brought the theory and exercises of neue Tanz, based on the Rudolf Laban method, to Japan. He is known for popularizing Japanese modern dance.

Masami Kuni learned from Laban and Wigman, and contributed to the field in numerous ways: by analyzing the dancing space of Laban, by developing a basic creative technique, by designing a training method of body exercise for the creation of dancing, and finally by creating a constitution method. He attempted to systematize the methodology of modern dance in Japan.

After World War II, “creative dance" was introduced into physical education as a dance to “draw self-expression," and those teachers who did not understand this creative method received guidance from modern dancers. However, it was difficult for the physical education teachers to practice Eguchi's and Kuni's creative methods. Therefore it was necessary to modify modern dancers' methodology. Eguchi realized that modern dancers' methodology was unavoidable and therefore expected the physical education teachers to put in additional effort and study hard in the future.

This study aims to clarify the existent structure of “PGA Tour".

The PGA Tour is the biggest professional golf tournament in the world―the main arena of professional players like Tiger Woods. Many researches on professional sports have hitherto targeted the so-called league type, which include games such as professional baseball, soccer, and basketball. However, professional sports of the “non-league types," for example, professional golf, is clearly different from the league type in terms of their management structure. This study approaches PGA Tour as a typical case belonging to such non-league-type professional sports, analyzing the historical process from which it was born and developed and its existent structure.

The main points presented in this study are as follows:

First, from a diachronic view, the PGA Tour grew from its initial low profitability stature through charity tournaments and by securing sponsors and increasing telecasts. Second, the relational structure of PGA Tour is extremely fluid in that it is a series of tournaments in which stakeholders such as the shareholder, organization, and facilities constantly change. Third, the PGA Tour works on a peculiar mechanism based on the liquidity of the relational structure, balancing revenue and expenditure.

An attempt was made to clarify dual aspects of the human body in the context of physical education, with the discussion centering mainly on the philosophy of René Descartes (1596-1650). In the field of physical education philosophy, discussions about the conception of the human body continue to draw interest, but there are now other conceptions that serve as alternatives among researchers. Therefore, it is useful to examine the most fundamental understanding of the human body from the philosophical perspective of Descartes.

Descartes believed that the human body is nothing but a machine, with three common characteristics: divisibility (division), shapability (shape), and movability (motion). All three encompass the natural phenomena that make up the human body.

On the other hand, the perspective of “Les Passions de l' âme (The Passions of the Soul)" depicts human beings as the union of mind and body. Movement can be affected by social relationships and by controlling one's own passions. Descartes first exemplified this perspective by citing the example of a dog and a partridge, implying that a connection between certain passions and bodily movement in humans can be changed by given “habits" or “sufficient ingenuity in training."

As a result, human body in the union of body and mind seems to have dual aspects: it is a machine of an organism (from an ontological viewpoint), while bodily movements can be modified in relation to various passions and habits (from the viewpoint of social relationships). The discussion also raises the possibility that the theory of Descartes has a role in constructing the theory of physical education.