The purpose of this study was to develop criterion-referenced measurement items for improvement of the initiative problem-solving ability in PE in high school. The questionnaire test was used to measure the initiative problem-solving ability in PE of 651 male high school students. The causal structure model of the improvement process of the initiative problem-solving ability in PE was hypothesized to be a cyclic causal loop consisting of 4 major domains of intrinsic motivation, initiative action, achievement satisfaction, and self-recognition.The item and the test characteristics of 38 criterion-referenced measurement items were statistically analyzed using item response theory with 2-parameter logistic model (2PLM) . In conclusions, the criterion-referenced measurement items of the improvement of the initiative problem-solving ability in PE have uni-dimensionality and goodness-of-fit of the items, invariance of estimates of 2PLM, and reliability, validity and goodness-of-fit of the test.

The purpose of this study is to clarify the characteristics of Shintō-like religious traits in Shintō-ryū kenjutsu.

Exploring the myths found in the Heihō jikanshō scroll of the Shintō-ryū, we found that the religious influence of Shintō was immense. As a manifestation of Shintō religious traits, a unique mythological image was formed with the following characteristics:

- The first thing that became clear was the existence of a magic tradition centred on the warrior god Takemikazuchi and the Futsunomitama-no-tsurugi (divine sword).

- The Futsunomitama-no-tsurugi together with the Kusanagi-no-tsurugi are said to be the two great magical swords of ancient times. However, the Kusanagi-no-tsurugi is not mentioned in the Heihō jikanshō. This provides evidence of Futsunomitama-no-tsurugi's importance in the Shintō-ryū.

- One of the most distinctive magic features in the Shintō-ryū not seen elsewhere is related to the Mitama-no tsurugi majifuru-no-tachi divine sword. This is also described as a “sword dance" and swinging the sword as an act purification was clearly a Shintō-like magical sword technique.

- This can be understood as a direct link between the magical and martial arts.

- A peculiarity of the Shintō-ryū is that it authorises a link between strategy in subduing the mythical serpent Yamata-no-Orochi, and military law, strategy, and tactics of the Kōshū-ryū military school and Sun Tzu's Art of War.

- Notably, as already discussed in another paper, there was a modification made to the myth of “kuni-yuzuri" (transfer of the land from the earthly to heavenly gods). The creation of myths in medieval times has been pointed out in previous research, but this study shows that myths were known to be modified, and narratives mythologised in kenjutsu.

In Shintō-ryū kenjutsu, there is no doubt that the Shintō-like religious characteristics discussed above were present from at least the time of Tsukahara Bokuden, who is acknowledged as the founder of the school. However, this study has shown that from the mid-modern period until the time of the Heihō jikanshō, these traits were imparted with their own unique, mythical imagery.

Among the activities of the Dai-Nippon Butoku-kai, particular importance was attached to the training of budo instructors. The Budō Kyōin Yōseikei Daigaku (Budo Normal School) was founded in 1905, and then the Budō Senmon Gakko (Budo Vocational School) in 1912. The school was for boys over the age of 17 and is said to have been influential in the development of youth in modern Japan.

This paper will focus on the activities for youth undertaken by the Dai-Nippon Butoku-kai in its foundation period before the establishment of the Budo Normal School and to clarify its specific characteristics.

For a research method, a theory will be constructed by a careful study of newspapers, as in previous research. Articles related to the Butoku-kai in the Osaka Mainichi Shimbun and Tokyo Nichi Nichi Shimbun from April 17, 1895, when the Butoku-kai was established, to April 17, 1904, that are concerned with activities for youths will be looked at and their contents clarified.

From a comprehensive study of the articles related to the Butoku-kai in the period in question, the main activities for youths were the Great Butokusai Demonstration, Great Youth Demonstration, short boat races, and long-distance swimming meets. In these activities, the greatest importance was placed on youth budo because of the influence of Watanabe Noboru. Through budo (bujutsu) and short boat races, it is clear that the Butoku-kai made great efforts in the development of youths in two ways: using the intrinsic educational and military characteristics of budo.

This paper examined whether the approach where techniques and tactics are put aside, as seen in the Sekiun School, is seen in other schools as well, taking into account the transformation of values in swordsmanship styles. The key findings are as follows.

1. Common points of Sekiun-School and Jikishin-School

It is said that Harigaya Sekiun, the founder of the Sekiun-School, and Kamiya Denshinsai, the founder of the Jikishin-School, defeated their teacher Ogasawara Genshinsai before establishing their own styles (however, with respect to the Jikishin-School, this account appears only after the establishment of its successor, the Jikishinkage-School). This version of events can be seen as an expression of a break from the swordsmanship of the previous era and the development of new styles. Both schools rejected the swordsmanship of the previous era because they thought it be deviating from the ideal state of mind. A mind that has diverged from the ideal state is referred to as chikushoshin (“bestial mind") in the Sekiun-School and as hi (“error") in the Jikishin-School.

2. Sekiun-School

As indicated in previous studies, the Sekiun School disapproves of swordsmanship styles in which various maneuvers and offensive moves are used to deceive the opponent and gain victory. Acquiring techniques in the Sekiun School is very simple: the practitioner advances toward the opponent to the point where the opponent is within weapon range and then strikes, without sparing any thoughts about oneself.In this study, in a re-examination of the content of the swordsmanship style condemned by Sekiun School, it was found that the techniques and tactics of assuming a confrontational countenance and making either of them aware, while using the other to mislead the mind of the opponent, is criticized. Furthermore, even a moderate confrontational stance is met with disapproval, and being non-deliberate and nonchalant is emphasized.

3. Jikishin-School

The Jikishin-School held that if the mind stood clear of hi, it could attain jikishin, an ideal mental state. Other schools are criticized for advocating strict adherence to a style without seeking mastery of the mind.In the Jikishinseito-School and the Jikishinkage-School, the successors of the Jikishin-School, the greatest importance is placed on maintaining an ideal state of mind and body. It is also thought that if one can preserve such a state of mind and body, opponents with hi in their minds will destroy themselves. Metsuke exists even in the teachings of the Jikishinseito-School and the Jikishinkage-School, but the idea is that the state of an opponent's mind may be recognized by concentrating on the eyes, while devoting little attention to tactical details.

Research about the diffusion of Japanese swordsmanship to Korea has recently been developing in Japan; however, as far as this author can see, there are no studies that address the interpretation of its meaning and impact on the terms Wae-geom (倭劒) and Wae-geom-sa (倭劒士) in Korean classical literature.

In this study, the term Wae-geom was examined by looking for examples of its use in History of Goryeo and Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. The usage of the term Wae-geom in the Korean martial arts book titled Muye chebo pǒnyǒk sokchip, which was published in 1610, is already well known by scholars; therefore, this author clarified the usage of Wea-geon from the establishment of the Goryeo dynasty to 1610 in the book Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty. The term Wae-geon-sa was examined through The Comprehensive Publication of Korean Literary Collections in Classical Chinese. This research mainly used Kourai-shi Nihon-den, published by Iwanami, the Database of Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, provided by the National Institute of Korean History, the Korean Classic Comprehensive Database, provided by the Institute for the Translation of Korean Classics, as resources and referred to the book Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty, which was edited by the National Institute of Korean History.

The results of this study are as follows:

1. The term Wea-geom was found in the book History of Goryeo; therefore, the term was used before the Joseon Dynasty.

2. Japanese swords were expressed as Wea-geom, Wea-do (倭刀), and Wea-hwan-do (倭環刀) during the period from the establishment of Goryeo dynasty to 1610 in the book Veritable Records of the Joseon Dynasty.

3. The term Wea-geom had a double meaning as a Japanese sword and Japanese swordsmanship.

4. The term Wea-geom-sa was only found in the story titled “Geom-gaeg-gi-mun" (劒客記聞) in the book Jeo-seo (自著) written by Yu Han-jun (1732-1811). The fact that the term Wea-geom-sa was used as a motif in Korean literary novels of the swordsmanship biography (劒俠傳) genre in the Korean Peninsula means that Japanese swordsmanship had spread to the Korean Peninsula and suggests that this practice may have influenced not only the development of martial arts such as Korean swordsmanship but also Korean literature as a spiritual culture.