We studied sleeping sites used by chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in savanna woodland areas of Tanzania outside national parks in Tanzania from 1994 to 2011. We walked 1,043 km of census lines and recorded 479 beds in 193 clusters within 30 m from the census line. We prepared vegetation and topological maps using satellite and global information system data. We divided the census lines into 60 m square quadrates. One or more chimpanzee beds occurred in 154 quadrates, and no beds occurred in the remaining 16,597 quadrates. Evergreen forests occupied more area (mean 25.4%) in the quadrates with beds than in those without beds (5.5%). The ground slope was steeper in the quadrates with beds (10.5°) than those with no beds (6.0°). A GLM showed that evergreen forests and slope affected the choice of sleeping sites. Chimpanzees made few beds in woodlands during the dry season simply because most woodland trees were defoliated. Bed distribution during the rainy season also showed that evergreen forests were included in more areas (mean 28.2%) in the 41 quadrates with beds than in the other 2,297 quadrates with no beds (5.1%). Lions (Panthera leo) and leopards (Panthera pardus) inhabit chimpanzee habitats in Tanzania. Chimpanzees might sleep in forests to reduce the predation risk by such carnivores, because distances among trees was shorter and tree height higher than those in woodlands, and there was less grass in forests for carnivores to hide and hunt. Chimpanzees might sleep in hilly areas, because water is close to the bottom of the slope, and the carnivores might have difficulty chasing chimpanzees up the slope. Predation risk as well as the distribution of food trees and availability of sleeping trees might affect the choice of sleeping sites by chimpanzees in the savanna woodlands.

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Responses of Japanese macaques to human approaches during winter were quantified as flight initiation distance (FID). I compared FID among several villages that differed in their chase-away countermeasures against monkeys. Juvenile monkeys and females with infants moved further away than other females and males did. In a village with no countermeasures, a researcher could approach nearer to the monkeys than in other villages in which countermeasures were conducted. Furthermore, sex and age differences in FID occurred only in villages in which hunters with guns chased monkeys. There were no sex-age differences in the villages where local people chased monkeys away by shooting fireworks. Although no sex-age differences were found in the non-countermeasure village, the average FID in that village was shorter than in the villages shooting fireworks. These results suggested that monkeys could plastically change their behavior in response to humans and their activities. The chase-away countermeasures of the local villagers seemed to be effective at maintaining a high level of caution to humans in the monkeys and in preventing increased damage to the villages.

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We studied about the non-woody plant diets of wild Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata), including herbaceous plants, ferns, mushrooms, seaweeds, and animal matter, in order to make clear how many numbers of non-woody plant food items were eaten by the macaques all over across Japan. This is useful information for both fundamental and applied studies of this species. Through a web-searching using "Web of Science" and "Google scholar", we collected 266 data sets from 215 articles from 49 study sites. The macaques fed on 460 species of herbaceous plants (from 258 genus/67 family), 30 species of ferns (from 24 genus/15 family: 15), 61 species of fungi (from 42 genus/19 family), 3 species of moss (from 3 genus/3 family), and 11 species of seaweeds (from 11 genus/7 family), respectively. For the herbaceous plants and ferns, we also studied the parts eaten. Macaques mainly fed on leaves and stems of the herbaceous plants. This was different from that of woody plant diets, for which the macaques evenly fed on leaves, fruits, buds, bark, and flowers. On the other hand, the macaques fed on 136 animal species, mainly insects (108 species, from 103 genus/15 order). They fed on only a few numbers of vertebrates (reptiles, amphibias, fish, and birds). The macaques fed on soil in many study sites. If we add information from Tsuji et al. (2011) about woody plant diets studied most intensively, the macaques in total fed on 1,154 species of plants and animals, and 2,406 dietary items of these plants. We also discussed about the usefulness of reviewing previous descriptive data.

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We conducted a field survey of the distribution of primates at 73 sites in Cambodia, primarily in the Rattanakiri Highlands and the Cardamom, Elephant, and Dangrek Mountains, in 2008 and 2010, based on interviews with local residents, and observations of pet monkeys, wild monkeys, and monkeys fed at temples. In the Rattanakiri Highlands, information on Nycticebus pygmaeus, N. bengalensis, Macaca fascicularis, M. leonina, M. assamensis, M. mulatta, M. arctoides, Pygathrix nigripes, Nomascus gabriellae, and Trachypithecus margarita was obtained, although the presence of M. mulatta and M. assamensis should be confirmed in further studies. In the Cardamom Mountains, information on N. pygmaeus, N. bengalensis, M. fascicularis, M. leonina, M. assamensis, M. mulatta, M. arctoides, T. germaini, and Hylobates pileatus was obtained, although information on N. pygmaeus, M. assamensis, M. mulatta, and M. arctoides should be confirmed in further studies. In the Dangrek Mountains, information on N. bengalensis, M. fascicularis, and M. leonina was obtained. The habitat loss and degradation caused by large timber concessions, agricultural concessions, and illegal hunting are major threats to primates. Primates are protected by the Forest Law of 2002. Nevertheless, local residents are not aware of the law, and many consume and trade wild meat and animal parts. Unrecovered weapons and explosives from the civil war have accelerated excessive hunting of wild animals. Captive breeding of M. fascicularis for international trade for use in pharmaceutical testing and biomedical experiments might also threaten the wild populations, and its effect on wild populations should be examined carefully in future studies. Another problem is the translocation of wild monkeys to Buddhist temples, which affects the natural distribution of endemic genetic variation.

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