The outline of the history of religious studies can be depicted as the importation of the basic concepts and methods from European pioneers. The contents of the study have been mainly theoretical and critical investigation, and the comparison of particular religious phenomena. The typology of religions from the standpoint of globalism has not developed in Japan. Phenomenological studies have been oriented to the hermeneutics of religious documents and cults. It is significant that some scholars emphasize understanding the intentions of the behavior of believers. The recent social situation seems to require the re-examination of the concept of "religion" itself and its significance for human life. Some important publications can be expected to give us key results for the future.

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This paper has two purposes. One is to try to elucidate, from the methodological viewpoint, the fundamental aspect of Buddhist studies beginning at the early Meiji period, in which the <new> method of Buddhist studies imported from Europe had just started. Another is to make some observations on the future of Buddhist studies. Japan has a long tradition of Buddhist studies, beginning in the time of the transmission of Buddhism in the sixth century. The <new> method of Buddhist studies in modern Japan, namely, the European-style philological method of Buddhist studies, began with almost no connections to such a tradition. This new method has, until now, been maintained as the most important method for Buddhist studies in Japan. The author also agrees that the study by this method is very important as the supporting axis of Buddhist studies. However, there is a need in the present day that enterprising researchers of Buddhism should further take on the challenge of an historical study of Buddhism, and, if possible, a comparative study of Buddhism, based on the fruits of the philological study of valuable Buddhist texts.

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Unlike that in Europe or North America, Christian studies in Japan cannot be simply identified with "theology." One reason is that being a Christian in Japan is rather unusual or rare, so if the study of Christianity is limited to the Christians, the study itself will lose its public nature and become too closed and exclusive. In reality, though, the study of Christianity in Japan has been carried out without due regard to this issue, and the methodologies have remained ambiguous. As a result, it seems that research concerning the cultures of Europe or North America, which should have naturally overlapped with Christian studies, have not produced meaningful results. To overcome these difficulties, the possibility of "Kirisutokyogaku" (the Study of Christianity) should be sought, through grasping religious phenomena related to Christianity on the whole in the context of Japanese culture and society.

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There have been two peaks in the history of Islamic Studies in Japan : One is the pre-war period between 1935 and 1945, and the other is the post-war period after the "Oil Shock" in 1973. These developments in the study of Islam in Japan were the results of national necessities in each age, but the role of Comparative Religion was minor in those academic activities in either age. It is necessary, in order to improve this situation, to try to study Islam with a definite methodological consciousness. Also, a typological approach, from the perspective of religion in general, should prove to be a useful method. The development of Sufism is discussed as an example of this approach.

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In contrast to descriptive religious studies, a normative philosophy of religion has been considered to have no referential dimension that can provide the basis for objective knowledge. Such an understanding of philosophy of religion, however, is inappropriate in the case of Japanese philosophy of religion. The speculative efforts of Nishida Kitaro, for example, who holds a central place in Japanese philosophy of religion and who argues that, fundamentally, philosophy of religion is concerned with reality, was directed to clarifying what kind of reality that is. W. C. Smith understood reality as "faith" in contrast with "belief." It can be said that reality is something that is encountered through faith. According to Smith, faith refers to "the quality of human life." He argues that, formerly, religious studies have attempted to apprehend religion by focusing on the objective (noema) pole, but it is necessary to focus on faith, which is the invisible subjective (noesis) pole. This was what Japanese philosophy of religion as a whole has been seeking to explore. In other words, it has been a description of the human encounter with reality through faith.

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It seems to me that there are currently two types in the study of Shinto; the scientific study of Shinto and the theological study of Shinto. The following fields are included in the scientific study of Shinto : (1) history of religion, (2) Japanese history, (3) Japanese folklore, (4) archeology, (5) Japanese mythology, and (6) history of Japanese thought. The purpose of the theological study of Shinto is to study Shinto itself from a theological perspective. Before World War II, almost all scholars who were engaged in the study of Shinto were believers in Kamigami and worshiped Tenno (the Emperor). Some recent scholars in the study of Shinto, however, have tried to criticize Shinto and have taken a critical attitude toward Tenno. I would like to make a distinction between these two types in the study of Shinto; the scientific study of Shinto and the theological study of Shinto.

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The traditions of Japanese religions have been studied mainly from the standpoint of established religions, such as Shinto, Buddhism, and Taoism. However, the Japanese people have selected or adapted these several religious traditions according to their own necessities in their religious lives. "Folk religion" is a manipulated concept used in order to identify the traditions of Japanese religions through the religious life of communities. Folk Religion formed a synthesis from various religious traditions, such as Shinto (that was developed from natural religion), Buddhism, Chinese Taoism, and Confucianism as established/organized religious traditions. This syncretistic religion was transmitted by local preachers together with other religions that were established in Japan such as Shugendo, Onmyodo and some new religions, in accordance with the needs of the religious life of communities, and widely accepted as "Folk Religion." In many studies, however, Folk Religion has often been considered to be a remnant that has lost its substance. In this article, I have examined past studies on the establishment and development of Folk Religion, mainly focusing on the work of local preachers, and have pointed out that the key to identify the traditions of Japanese religions is to be found in the history of Folk Religion in the life of the community.

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This paper will introduce and analyze the originality of the results in the study of new religions and sociology of religion during the past hundred years in Japan, focusing on those results that have emerged from the empirical study of Japanese religious traditions. The study new religions from other fields will also be introduced, not just from the sociology of religion. On the sociology of religion, representative researches other than those on new religions will be introduced. This paper will not take up the researches on Japanese religions by foreign scholars or the study of Japanese religions in foreign countries by Japanese scholars. The conclusion of this paper is that the study of new religions and the sociology of religion in Japan, which has produced remarkable results, is not simply dependent on theories or researches of the West, but is research that has developed its own concepts, typologies, and theories based on the empirical research and theoretical perception of religious phenomena in Japan. The author believes that these results have the potential to contribute towards the understanding of religious phenomenon in other parts of the world that have similarities with religious phenomena in Japan.

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This paper attempts to delineate in broad terms the development of the academic study of religion in modern Japan, on the occasion of its 100th anniversary in 2005. The survey covers mainly the postwar period after 1945, which may be subdivided into the former and the latter half, with the dividing line roughly in early 1970s. In trying to assess the achievements of researchers working in this field, the paper first describes the social and cultural trends, both international and domestic, that featured as the context of academic activities during this period; it then singles out research topics that came to the fore in response to these trends, such as changes in religious structure, new religious movements, studies of hitherto unfamiliar religions together with some new themes like gender studies with regard to religion, etc. Parallel to these, research focusing on individual traditional religions-Shinto, Buddhism or Christianity-has been conducted as intensively as before, but it sometimes seems to run the risk of becoming self-sufficient, eventually leading to segmentation within religious studies. This paper suggests that in this situation it is primarily the task of phenomenological and philosophical approaches to elaborate a meta-theory or a vision of religion based upon a comparative perspective, and that Japan's pluralistic tradition provides a fertile soil for this endeavor to contribute to international scholarship.

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Aus der Begegnung und Auseinandersetzung des Zen mit der westlichen (europaischen) Philosophie entstanden Philosophie von Nishida Kitaro (1870-1945) und Philosophie von Nishitani Keiji (1900-1990). Zwischen dem Zen als Nicht-Denkender Existenzpraxis und dem Denken der Philosophie mit der potenzierten Reflexion liegt eine qualitative Kluft, wie es naheliegt. Bei einer Begegnung von Zen und Philosohie, falls sie irgendwie geschieht, ereinet sich meistens gegenseitiges Ignorieren bzw. gegenseitige Absage. Im Unterschied dazu legten sich Nishida und Nishitani mit eigener Entscheidung je auf eigene Weise in die Kluft zwischen Zen und Philosophie durch gleichzeitiges Zen-Uben und philosophisches Denken, eigentlich ein unmogliches Anfangen, um eine Uberbruckung dazwischen zu bereiten, und zwar auf die Gefahr hin, selber innerlich entzwei zu werden. Dabei war Nishida wie auch Nishitani davon uberzeugt, daβ Nicht-Denken des Zen und Denken der Philosophie seien beide gleich wesentlich notwendig fur die Verwirklichung der vollen und tiefsten Moglichkeit des Menschseins. Bei Nishida und Nishitani als beinah leibhafter Uberbruckung auf der Kluft zwischen Zen und Phlosophie entstanden die Philosophie der Reinen Erfahrung und des absoluten Nichts bei Nishida und die Philosophie der "Leerheit" (Sunyata) bei Nishitani. Unsere Aufgabe ist nun, folgendes zu erhellen : Was fur Philosophie bei den beiden, was fur Religionsverstandnis dabei, und welche Bedeutung von Nishida und Nishitani fur uns in der gegenwartigen Welt?

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Japanese Buddhism has profoundly influenced Japanese thought and culture since early times. To understand the latter, it is necessary to understand Japanese Buddhism. At the same time, it is also necessary to understand the place of Japanese Buddhism within the entire stream of Buddhism that begins in India. However, it was not easy for ordinary people to gain a good grasp of Buddhism in prewar Japan. This was because Japanese Buddhism was divided into distinct sects, all of which had scholars who carried on the traditional scholarship of that sect, which outsiders found difficult to enter. After the war, traditional scholarship became more open, and it became easier to engage in Buddhist scholarship. The aim of this paper is to inquire into this development.

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Studies on the history of religion in Japan have been concerned mostly with the history of the establishment of modern religious studies, or with the development of various theories of religion. However, questions for scholars of religion about the purpose or goal of their studies, or the relationship of their research to the society in which they live, have not been seen as an important topic for the history of religion in Japan. In order to examine this topic, I will take a look at social comments made by scholars of religion in Japan during the period between 1941 and 1945, that is, the time of the "Pacific War." This war was also called the "Greater East Asian War" and was claimed to have been fought for the establishment of the "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere." Thus we find many essays on the study of religion or religious policy in these areas. On the other hand, as reflected domestically in the phrase "total war, " there are many statements concerning life-and-death issues and the role of religious people. I will attempt to learn about the responsibilities of current scholars of religion by examining the social statements by these scholars of religion in former times.

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The study of Taoism as a Chinese religion has not been very active in Japan, but has shown quick progress since the founding of the Japan Society of Taoistic Research in 1950. I myself visited Okinawa with the belief that, as Yanagida Kunio once said, "Okinawa reflects ancient Japan." I was struck, however, by the preponderance of Chinese religious folk practices, and felt that Yanagida's statement was mistaken. Since then I have studied Chinese religious folk practices in Okinawa. In this essay I will report on the results of my surveys concerning Tenson (the Lord of Heaven), earth deities, grave guardian deities, and Taoist charms.

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