The "Old Oligarch", the author of Constitution of the Athenians, recorded his very interesting observations of the various phases of Athenian democracy during the later half of the fifth century B.C. Among those views, his pointing out of the relation between a marine empire and democracy in Athens is very important because it shows his basic point of view. He recognizes that in reality it is the poor people who are the support and driving force of a sea power and who contribute more to the strengthening of their country than do the nobles and the wealthy. He also considers it to be right that they hold a predominent position and participate in government. It is noteworthy that he uses the words "right" or "rightfully" in this context, for rightness, or justice, is one of the most fundamental subjects in the history of Greek ideas. Moreover, the oligarch's statement justifying the rule of the poor people cannot be found anywhere else in Greek texts. Nevertheless, scholars have not paid due regard to it, and have usually been occupied with the philological interpretation of words, phrases, expressions and statements concerning particular matters in the text. Being diligent about their minute work, they often have neglected examining the basic ideas of this work. This is the reason why the author of the present paper tries to investigate the work in holistic terms from the standpoint of the history of ideas and to make clear the "Old Oligarch's" view of justice; and then marine empire and democracy that were the most important elements constituting the Athenian life in those days, will be revealed from within. The investigation proceeds as follows : 1.The "Old Oligarch" sees many aspects of Athenian democracy in a very biased light, while his observant eye watches its fundamental structure with great presence of mind. As a result his view of democracy seems to be contradictory. So what, we may ask, was democracy actually for him? 2.He seems to accept democracy as a form of government, though he unfavorably criticizes the democratic way of life. In the face of this ambiguous attitude, what on earth, we may ask, did he consider to be valuable in the Athenian situation? And what kind of social class formed the basis of his attitude toward politics? 3.He seems not to have found the value or political idea which has great influence on society and of which he approves, and also loses sight of the social class in which he has close interest. Yet he affords an excellent insight into the reality of Athens. What did he regard as the most important powers supporting the Athenian empire? What's more, what originality was shown in his understanding of Athenian democracy? 4.His view of justice is inseparably related to the existence of the Athenian empire, which he considers to be the highest priority. In that case, what were the characteristics of his view of justice, compared with those of his contemporaries who were more or less similar to him.

View full abstract

In China, although coal has been mined for a long time and at present continues to be a staple fuel, there remain some historical problems of price, business management, and scale. The coal mining began in the Qianlong (乾隆) era, when the management of mines began in earnest. In the eighteenth century China confronted many problems on account of economic expansion and contact with Europe. These include development, kinship, money, food, and bureaucracy, all of which are topics of scholarly concern today. A population explosion especially became grave, and accompanying this, demands for resources rose, and new industries for daily necessities developed, namely pottery, tile, and brewing. As for fuel, a necessity for daily life and industry, the traditional fuels of firewood and charcoal fell into short supply, on account of the depletion of forests during and after the Song (宋) period. Meanwhile, they adopted an reforesting policy, but this was ineffective. Hence, there emerged an inclination toward mining. From the end of the Ming (明) period, firewood and charcoal were gradually replaced by coal, but because of the so-called Kuang-Shui-zhi-Huo (鉱税之禍), damages caused by mining and taxes, most people had a negative view of mine development, due to the disturbances by eunuches and villainies. Hence, from the beginning of the Qing (清) period to the middle of the Qianlong era, there emerged, on a nationwide scale, a controversy regarding mine exploitation or stoppage. In the end, this controversy ended in a victory for the exploitation party, but even earlier than this the controversy regarding coal mines was solved in 1740 (乾隆5). The leading actor was Zhao Guo-lin (趙国麟), the grand secretary. Arguing that (1)one cannot do without fuel in daily life, (2)firewood is apt to be ill provided and, moreover, expensive, and (3)in Taian (泰安), his native town, they had coal mining for a long time, without problems, Zhao insisted on exploitation and was impervious to argument. After that, mines were exploited extensively in many places, but in Zhili (直隷), the Independent District, which included the Capital, supply was apt to stagnate, because of problems caused by the blockade for pooling and the shortage of transport. The man who dealt with this was Fang Guan-cheng (方観承), the Supreme Commander at Zhili. He shaped a policy that aimed to increase the mines and to secure transport teams. As a result, early coal mining in China reached its first peak, but because of the edicts on mining which were announced many times on and after 1761 (乾隆26), it is doubtful whether policies were effective or not. From the perspective of management in the system of running mines, they reduced the red tape required in reporting to the center. One of the investors (including the landowner) proceeded to manage by registering as yaohu (窯戸), receiving zhizhao (執照) from the Administration Commissioner, and employing native laborers only. Yaohu employed a field overseer who managed a coal mine, and laborers were employed on a per diem basis. But the influential investors, such as banners and bureaucrats, absorbed most of the profit, and most of the laborers were seasonal peasant workers, so that there was no rationalization of management, no technological innovation, and no expansion. Therefore, they adopted chiefly a method which exploited one small-scale mine after another.

View full abstract