Nishapur, a western city in Khurasan, flourished between the 4/10th and 6/12th centuries as one of the central cities for intellectuals in the Islamic World. The author of the present article uses The Histories of Nishapur which were compiled between the latter half of the 4/10th century and the beginning of the 6/12th century in order to analyze quantitatively place names mentioned accounts of the academic careers of 2539 'ulama' contained in the Histories. In the analyses, he examines how changes occurred in the travel patterns of 'ulama', centering around Nishapur, between the 2/8th to 6/12th centuries, and traces the process of the establishment of Islamic knowledge in Nishapur and Khurasan. He also discusses the transition that took place in Nishapur's relations with other regions regarding the proliferation of that knowledge in the process of its development into an intellectual center. At the same time, he considers the background to and reasons why so much of city and local histories throughout the Islamic World between the 4/10th and 6/12th centuries is concerned with biographies of 'ulama'. The author finds that first, the establishment of Islamic knowledge in Nishapur and Khurasan at its early stage depended on the introduction of that knowledge from 'Iraq ; but, secondly, the activities of 'ulama' became more and more substantive in the region, depending on the development of its local establishment. Consequently, a tendency for the geographical extent of 'ulama' intellectual activities and knowledge proliferations limited to Khurusun proper appeared between the latter half of the 4/10th century and the latter half of the 5/11th century, the gradual localization of the 'ulama' activities and knowledge proliferation during the time when The Histories of Nishapur were compiled. Furthermore, it is possible to assume that the compilation of biographical city and local histories in many parts of Islamic World between the 4/10th and 6/12th centuries was greatly motivated by the progress taking place in the localization of Islamic knowledge in each region during that time, the difficulty in maintaining an inter-regional academic career information system and unity among 'ulama', and a recognition of the necessity for coping with such a situation.

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In the colonial history of early modern France, the research has dealt mainly with the regime of mercantilism. However, New France did have colonial functions, agricultural, commercial, military, and religious. In particular, the religious function was one of the most important at the beginning of 17^<th> century. Accordingly, the aim of this article is to examine the religious character of colonization in connection with the movement of French Catholic reconquest. There are three arguments presented in this article. First, the colonial strategy was to construct "Catholic French colonies" as shown by the religious policy of the Company of New France (Compagnie des Cent-Associes) and its group of investors (associes). In order to carry out this strategy, the royal government planned missionary campaigns of Counter-Reformation across the Atlantic Ocean, in which La Rochelle, an influential French protestant capital, was remodeled into a crossroads of Catholic reconstruction and became the vanguard of the construction of the Colony in New France. Secondly, the mutual relation between private colonial enterprises of La Rochelle and colonial mission is supported by the close combination between merchants and clergy mernbers thr-ough relatives, donations, and presentations, as well as usual net-work between metropolitan areas and this colony formed by sending trade ships, and engage's to Canada. Lastly, not only personnel and commodities, but also pastoral techniques invented and developed by the Counter-Reformation were brought there through missionary organizations and put into practice for the conversion of native Canadians and maintenance of the faith of colonists. At the same time, there was some local conflict among missionary organizations, caused indirectly by structural friction within Catholicism in France. Therefore, these two characters of the colonial mission suggest difficulty for the religious colony to develop singly. However, we can see clearly the character of the origins of colonization as religious ; and this character continued as its foundation through the parish system and educational institutions for maintaining French colonial society until 1763.

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The present article is intended to clarify the raison d'etre of envoys, or delegates, called Sanmon-shisetu, who were affiliated with the two Japanese medieval oligarchs (kenmon 権門), the Muromachi Bakufu and Enryakuji 延暦寺 Temple, utilizing the concrete example of the involvement of these envoys in a dispute that occurred during the Bun'an era (1444 - 49) over Enryakuji's revocation of Nanzenji 南禅寺 Temple's permit of passage necessary for the latter's boats to trade on Lake Biwa. The author examines the question of how these envoys realized the wishes and interests of Enryakuji vis-a-vis powers with opposing interests. To begin with, one assumption in proceeding with such an analysis is to discern if in fact Sanmon-shisetsu had the right to deliver and enforce transit permits for the tariff stations controlled by Enryakuji in Omi Province. The author discovers that these envoys did have that right for Enryakuji stations, but non-Enryakuji facilities were controlled by the Rokkaku 六角 and Kyogoku 京極 families in the areas they administered as provincial constables (shugo 守護) appointed by the Muromachi Bakufu. Secondly, concerning the origin and resolution of the Nanzenji Incident, the author turns to the subject of Enryakuji's economic interests and the groups of monks who profited from tariffs levied at the station at Sakamoto 坂本 and who revoked the transit permits out of protest over an exemption given to Nanzenji's first five hundred boatloads of goods to pass through the station. Playing the leading role in resolving the dispute was Goshoin 護正院 Temple, an influential Sanmon-shisetu in economic affairs within and outside of Enryakuji. Goshoin's success in negotiating a settlement (a promise by Nanzenji to pay all tariffs in addition to gratitude money) was due to its close involvement in the economic affairs of Enryakuji monks. One more important factor in the settlement was Enryakuji's firm belief that the Sanmon-shisetsu would express its demands to Nanzenji and protect its interests. Therefore, the author concludes that those appointed Sanmon-shisetsu by no means acted in accordance with the Bakafu's wishes in opposition to Enryakuji, but also contributed to the interests of the latter in certain cases. While serving two opposing powers, the Sanmon-shisetsu was extremely sensitive and flexible towards the demands of both, acting as an intermediary between the two and perceived by both as indispensable to their political activities.

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