There is a book called The Truth about Cao Cao's Tomb (Henansheng Wenwu Kaogu Yanjiusuo 河南省文物考古研究所 [Henan Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology], ed., Cao Cao mu zhenxiang 曹操墓真相, 2010; Japanese translation: So So bo no shinso 曹操墓の真相, 2011). This book covers the excavation of a tomb at Xigaoxue 西高穴 village that is considered to be Cao Cao's tomb and also discusses matters such as the truth about Cao Cao's death as recorded in historical sources. The Japanese translation is accompanied by a contribution by Watanabe Yoshihiro 渡邉義浩, who writes as follows: "The reason that I half believed that tomb no. 2 at Xigaoxue might be Cao Cao's tomb when I heard the first report lay in the location where it was discovered and the scale of the tomb. Why, then, did I half doubt it? The reason lay in the stone stele reading '魏武王常所用挌虎大戟', which the authors of this book have from the outset continued to cite as the prime evidence that tomb no. 2 at Xigaoxue is Cao Cao's tomb." With regard to this stele, Watanabe further writes: "I had the impression that the characters were not very well written, and I wondered whether Cao Cao would have had his name written in such a poor hand. For this reason I was half in doubt."
  In this article I essay a rebuttal of Watanabe's view regarding this point. This is because, in the history of calligraphic styles used at the time, the characters on this stele are written in one of the most typical styles used in inscriptions, a transitional style that emerged in the shift from the Han clerical script to the Wei clerical script. More specifically, the style of brushwork known as "wavy momentum" (boshi 波勢), a distinctive feature of the contemporary Han clerical script, has disappeared, and the characters on the stele are drawing closer to the style known as Wei clerical script, underpinned by stylistic harmony. By analyzing in detail the clerical script of the final years of the Later Han as it changed from the Han clerical script to the Wei clerical script, I demonstrate that this stele is written in a calligraphic style representative of the time when Cao Cao lived.

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"Announcements to the underworld" (gaodi ce 告地策 or gaodi shu 告地書) are a type of document that was placed in tombs in ancient China, and the number of such documents that have been unearthed from tombs of the Former Han as a result of archaeological excavations during the past thirty to forty years is by no means small. To the best of my knowledge, the following nine such documents have been discovered: bamboo tablet from Former Han tomb no. 1 at Xiejiaqiao 謝家橋 (183 B.C.); wooden tablet from Former Han tomb at Gaotai 高台 (173 B.C.); wooden tablet from tomb no. 3 at Mawangdui 馬王堆 (168 B.C.); wooden tablet from Former Han tomb no. 1 at Maojiayuan 毛家園 (168 B.C.); bamboo tablet from tomb no. 168 at Fenghuangshan 鳳凰山 (167 B.C.); wooden tablet from tomb no.10at Fenghuangshan (158 B.C.); wooden tablet from tomb no. 8 at Kongjiapo 孔家坡 (142 B.C.); wooden tablet from tomb no. 5 at Huchang 胡場 in Hanjiang 邗江 (70 B.C.); and wooden tablet from tomb no. 3 at Guanghua Wuzuo 光化五座 (date unknown).
  In view of the fact that these documents are identical in style to the identification papers used by travelers during the Han period, Oba Osamu 大庭脩 once called them "passports to the netherworld" on the assumption that they were used by the deceased when setting out for the underworld. They are, however, fictitious documents and represent one of the mortuary customs prevalent at the time.
  An examination of their content and calligraphic style reveals a number of points shared by these documents. With respect to their content, they begin with the date, followed by the name of the applicant, a list of burial goods, the issuing authority, the recipient, etc. As for their calligraphic style, they are written in the standard style employed for practical use at the time, probably because they would generally have been written shortly before the burial, and most of them can be classified as cursive clerical script (caoli 草隷). In this article, I present a list of "announcements to the underworld" that have been unearthed to date with details of their actual condition and undertake a comparative examination of them as well as analyzing the calligraphic style of the script in which they are written.

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Impressions of seals possessed by the Jin emperor Zhangzong 章宗 (1168-1208), known as the “seven imperial seals of the Mingchang 明昌 era,” are found on many renowned works, and they provide important evidence for determining the routes of transmission of these works. There are discrepancies between references in the Yunyan guoyan lu 雲烟過眼録 (Record of Clouds and Mist Passing Before One’s Eyes) by Zhou Mi 周密 (1232-98) of the early Yuan and the texts of extant seal impressions, but since the mid-Ming the extant seal impressions have been looked upon as the seven imperial seals of the Mingchang era. By classifying the extant seal impressions of the seven imperial seals, I was able to discover a group of reliable seals centred on those used on the scroll Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston). In addition, the seal impression on Wang Xizhi’s 王羲之 letter “Sending Regards to a Friend”(National Palace Museum, Taipei) may also be considered reliable, even though it does not belong to the above group. Consequently, the seal impression on “Twelve Months’ Correspondence with Friends” (National Palace Museum, Taipei) may also be regarded as reliable and can be considered to have been one of the seals in the possession of the emperor Zhangzong.
  On the basis of the classification of seal impressions, I also examine Zhangzong’s calligraphy in the “slender gold” (shoujin 痩金) style, and I have determined that the inscriptions on Exotic Gift from a Tributary State (National Palace Museum, Taipei), Court Ladies Preparing Newly Woven Silk, and Lady Guo Sightseeing in Spring (Liaoning Provincial Museum) ought to be regarded as benchmark works of Zhangzong’s calligraphy in the “slender gold” style. In addition, the calligraphy attached to the Admonitions Scroll (British Museum) did not originally belong to the painting, and it is questionable whether it is genuinely in Zhangzong’s hand. The method of differentiating calligraphy in the “slender gold” style by the emperors Huizong 徽宗 and Zhangzong as described by Lu You 陸友 may be considered reasonable.

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Dong Qichang 董其昌 (1555-1636) is renowned not only for his own works of painting and calligraphy and for his theories, but also for his appraisal of past paintings and calligraphy. It is evident from his autobiography that he was granted opportunities to appraise such works by several collectors, including Xiang Yuanbian 項元汴 and Han Shineng 韓世能, and consequently it would seem that even today his appraisals are trusted. But the actual techniques and styles that he favoured are still not clear, and there is scope for further examination of his criteria for appraising and evaluating past works of calligraphy. Accordingly, in this article I cite examples of his own calligraphy and past works of calligraphy that he extolled and ascertain the style of calligraphy that he held in high regard with a view to exploring his criteria.
  As a result, I was able to confirm that Dong Qichang was fond of calligraphy in which the characters begin with a long stroke and are written in thin sinuous strokes that give the impression of having been written with the brush held upright. This closely resembles the "Lanting xu" 蘭亭序 said to have been copied by Chu Suiliang 褚遂良. Dong Qichang regarded this type of style as an orthodox style going back to Zhong Yao 鍾繇 and Wang Xizhi 王羲之. It is surmised that he would have praised the "Lanting shi" 蘭亭詩 by Liu Gongque 柳公権 and the "Buxushi tie" 歩虚詩帖 by Yang Ningshi 楊凝式, which added a sense of vigour to this, on account of their having brought about a desirable change to the earlier style.
  A similar style can also be seen in calligraphers of the earlier Yunjian 雲間 school, and this would seem to be the reason that Dong Qichang extolled the Yunjian school of calligraphy. Furthermore, the so−called late Huating 華亭 school has until now been considered to have been influenced by Dong Qichang on account of the fact that the style in question can be seen in many of the late Ming works of calligraphy included in the Huang wenzi huibao 広文字会宝, but it is to be surmised that it was influenced by the contemporary popularity of this style without having been directly influenced by Dong Qichang.

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"Momentum" (shi 勢) in Chinese calligraphic theory is closely connected to "force" or "strength" (li 力). "Force" is primarily viewed in terms of the force of the brushwork. When one surveys terms related to the force of brushwork, one notices that there are many analogies based on living things. The view of calligraphy as a living thing indicates an interest in the strokes and shape of a character rather than in the communication of the meaning and content of a piece of calligraphy. The concepts of "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" appear frequently in analogies relating to the force of brushwork. The force of the brushwork has an influence not only on expression in the course of producing a work of calligraphy but also on the appraisal of the finished work. The concepts of "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" forge an important link between discussion of the production of calligraphic works and discussion of their appraisal.
  It becomes clear that, starting with the Siti shushi 四体書勢, and via the views of Cai Yong 蔡邕, Lady Wei 衛夫人, Li Shimin 李世民, and others, descriptions of the force of brushwork moved from natural phenomena to "bone," "muscle," and "flesh." Depending on the way in which the brush is used, all sorts of combinations using the terms "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" are possible, and it is only when an exquisite balance has been achieved that a vitality comparable to that of a living thing is born and becomes an expression of the force of the brushwork as a piece of calligraphy.
  The terms "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" also serve as criteria when appraising works of calligraphy and judging their relative merits. Terms of appraisal deriving from the qualities "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" appear chiefly in treatises on calligraphy dating from the Six Dynasties and the Tang. In this article, focusing on the Shupin 書品, Shuduan 書断, and Shushu fu 述書賦, I take up for consideration terms of appraisal relating to the notions of "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" and summarize how the beauty of the force of brushwork was expressed. The emergence of terms combining the words "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" is proof of the birth of an appreciation of the beauty of the force of brushwork. Comparing the concepts of "bony," "muscular," and "fleshy" with terms of appraisal will also be helpful for understanding the momentum of brushwork, closely allied to the force of brushwork.

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"Avant-garde calligraphy" emerged in Japan after World War II and then developed rapidly. In my analysis and study of its development, I have paid particular attention to the group called Bokujinkai 墨人会 and have discussed their activities. In this article, I trace the development of avant−garde calligraphy through an analysis of the works of Morita Shiryu 森田子龍, a central figure in the Bokujinkai.
  Morita's activities began with his encounter with his teacher Ueda Sokyu 上田桑鳩, a calligrapher who valued spontaneous creativity while also inheriting a respect for classical works and for individuality that had been advocated in the past. The magazine Sho no bi 書の美, which he oversaw, included an "α Section" as a "place for experimentation" that was for presenting works that were not written "characters," and it was later moved to the magazine Bokubi 墨美, edited by Morita.
  As a result of Morita's activities associated with the magazines Sho no bi and Bokubi, changes emerged in his work, and I examine his œuvre by broadly dividing it into (1) works predating 1955, (2) works from 1955 to 1959, and (3) works from after 1960. In works predating1955 there is a shift from traditional calligraphy to experimental works. In works produced in 1955-59 it is difficult to recognize the shape and stroke order of the "characters," and sensory elements (weightiness, tension, etc.) suggested by the "characters" are added to and given expression in their form. In works from 1960 onwards, the shape, stroke order, and rhythm of the "characters" are easier to recognize than in works of the preceding period, and they are works in which expression is given to that which Morita saw in what was contained in the "characters."
  The opinions of contemporary the oreticians with whom Morita fraternized are reflected in his works of each period. In order to clarify factors behind changes in his works, I also take up for consideration the magazines Sho no bi and Bokubi.

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Imai Ryosetsu 今井凌雪 (born Imai Jun'ichi 今井潤一; 19 Dec. 1922-26 July 2011) was known not only as a leading calligrapher of modern Japan, but also in various other roles, including educator, scholar, and collector. It could be said that by this means Imai realized after the war in a different form his youthful dream of studying in China, which he had been unable to fulfil because of the war. He was fluent in the Old Peking dialect, conversed directly and intimately with people in China's cultural circles, and formed connections with countless writers and calligraphers. These ties could be described as historical facts that symbolized one aspect of Sino-Japanese exchange in calligraphy, especially from the 1960s to the 1990s. In his position as a professor at Tsukuba University and Daito Bunka University, and also through his activities associated with calligraphy groups such as the Sesshinkai 雪心会, dedicated to the study of calligraphy, and Nihon Shogeiin 日本書藝院, he formed friendships with a great many Chinese and wrote about this chiefly in his book Sho o kokorozasu hito e 書を志す人へ (For Those Who Set Their Heart on Calligraphy) and the journal Shinshokan 新書鑑, of which he was the chief editor. For instance, through his contacts with art and cultural organizations, educational and research institutions, and publishing houses connected with calligraphy, such as Xiling Yinshe 西泠印社 (Xiling Yinshe Auction Co., Ltd.), the Chinese Calligraphers' Association, Wenwu Chubanshe 文物出版社 (Cultural Relics Press), Liaoning Provincial Museum, Fudan University, and Tianjin University, he visited scenic and historic places, staged exhibitions, participated in international conferences, viewed historical masterpieces of calligraphy, practised writing techniques, and collected calligraphic works and albums of rubbings of inscriptions. Most of this was done during his numerous visits to China, and in this article, basing myself on calligraphic works that he received and published materials that he himself wrote, I trace these activities with reference to the publication of a collection of works of calligraphy by important figures in Chinese cultural circles (Zhongguo wenhuajie yaoren qianming juan 中国文化界要人簽名巻), visits to Japan by Chinese Calligraphers' Delegations, the Xiling Yinshe Exhibition held in Japan, short-term calligraphy training groups, the Exhibition of Imai Ryosetsu's Calligraphy, the Symposium on the History and Theory of Calligraphy, lecture meetings for visiting professors, and his friendship with Qi Gong 啓功, Sha Menghai 沙孟海, Wang Xuezhong 王学仲, Yang Renkai 楊仁愷, and others.

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