Physiological and biochemical methods and techniques are used to study biological processes at different levels of organization of living matter.
Normal physiological processes of marine organisms caught in natural environment or maintained under constant external conditions have been studied in numerous scientific works. Nutrition, respiration, reproduction and metabolism for instance, are physiological functions more or less extensively known in algae, fishes, molluscs and crustaceans, among other phyla, generally depending on their economical interest.
Less studied are the physiological variations characterizing these species under different external conditions, systematically fixed, one by noe, or by groups, or under determinde variations of these environmental factors. Ecophysiology provide considerable information on the ecological characteristics of the studied species in nature, where temperature, photophase, light intensity, salinity, etc…, vary simultaneously in a non-programmed manner. The effects and consequences of each of these factors considered individually must be evaluated and measured in order to ascertain the importance of each one in nature and for each physiological function.
The scientific information obtained in these studiesins easily made use of in aquaculture, especially with intensive techniques.
The normal biochemical characteristics of marine organisms caught in natural environment or maintained under constant external conditions have sometimes been of interest for laboratories specialized in pure or physiological biochemistry. Some descriptive works in structural biochemistry, concerning the detailed composition of marine organisms, are available. The former vary in number and importance, depending on the different phyla. Enzymes characteristic of each physiological function, i. e. digestive enzymes in the nutritional function, and enzymes of intermediary metabolism for instance are much less known than in mammals, and sometimes not known at all in certain enire zoological groups.
Biochemical variation of these species under systematically fixed or expermentally varying external conditions have been much less developed and are much less known, especially in marine organisms. This scientific area, which can be called ecobiochemistry, will provide a fundamental explanation of the physiological functions of aquatic species, especially those reared in aquaculture.
The physiological and biochemical rhythmicity of these species internal or imposed, circadian, seasonal, annual, or dependingon the molting cycles in arthropods, have to be studeied in detail in order to enhance intensive aquaculture and automatization of the related techniques.
The relationship between the variable physiology and biochemistry of the hosts and their parasites, where interesting results have recently been obtained, have to be developed in order to gain an understanding of the processes of infestation, the reciprocal complementarities of the hosts and the parasite, and to improve the prevention and treatment of the hosts. Such a scientific area could be called ecophysioparasitology. Similarly, ecophysiopathology deals with the internal and external conditions of disease apparition. The development of ecophysiology and ecobiochemistry needs interdisciplainary teams made up of marine biologists, physiologists and biochemists, working closely with specialists in aquaculture and development.

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This paper is a personal selection of the important developments that have taken place through-out the world over the past two or three years. Scientific aspects are grouped under flavours and odours, lipids, proteins, water, physical properties, nutritive properties and wholesomeness, bacteriology. Technological aspects are grouped under underutilised species, recovery and use of edible flesh, protein preparations, preservation techniques. The emphasis is on developments which relate to the improved utilisation of fish as a human food.

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The early life history of a tongue fish Paraplagusia japonica (TEMMINCK et SCHLEGEL) was studied in the western Wakasa Bay and adjacent waters, the Japan Sea.
General morphology of the larvae and juveniles ranging from 5.95mm to 12.30mm BL was described. The characteristic features of this fish in early larval stages were elongations of the first 2 dorsal fin rays and distributional patterns of melanophores on the body surface.
Judging from gonad index and occurrence of larvae, acutal spawning may occur during the relatively short period from June to July in the western Wakasa Bay. Early postlarvae, late postlarvae and early juveniles were caught mainly in Maizuru Bay, Yura River estuary and nearshore regions around Wakasa Bay. These areas may be their spawning and nursery ground.
Food items of the gut contents were as follows: copepods nauplii, small copepods and copepod eggs in early larvae, copepods and copepod nauplii in metamorphosis, and, copeopds and amphipods in early juveniles.

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An index for the attractive effect of food was sought from three behavioral responses of active juvenile yellowtail, which entered, left and remained in the test compartment containing food. The attractive effect based on the main locmotive activity as observale attractive criteia could be represented as the product of the coefficients g and r of a logistic curve, y=g/{1+exp[-r(j-a)]} in the entering or the leaving time-course.
The attractive effect of various kinds of food, either the whole or the tissue of the organisms macerated, was examined by using the method mentioned above. Among seven classes of seawater organisms tested as food, polychaets, cephalopods, crustaceans and teleosts were found to be effective attractants. Blood worm Marphysa sanguinea, squid Lolig edulis edulis, whiskered velvet shrimp Metapenaeopsis barbata and flying fish Prognichtys agoo were the food that provoked remarkable exploratory and feeding behavior. Among three classes of forshwater organisms, strong attractants were only two kinds of crustaceans, sawtooth caridina Caridina denticulata and lake prawn Palaemon paucidens. None of the terrestrial organisms examined were effective.

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Heavy metals such as zinc, copper, lead, cobalt and nickel hemolyzed erythrocytes of several kinds of animals. The hemolytic a ctivity of each heavy metal was species-specific to test animals and zine affected the erythrocytes of rainbow trout most profoundly. Microscopic observation showed that a part of the epithelium of the gills of rainbow trout was torn off in the later stage of zinc poisoning. In addition, heavy metals took away the elasticity from salmon eggs which we used as a model of cell membranes of the erythrocytes and the epithelial cells. There was a close relationship in the order of the efficacy of heavy metals between the degree of hemolysis and the loss in elasticity. Not only the hemolysis of erythrocytes but also the damage of the gills were probably due to the loss in elasticity of the cell membrane. Thus we concluded that zinc had a kind of cytotoxicity especially to rainbow trout.

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The immune systems of fish are still unclear and moreover, a cell-to-cell cooperation, which is a basic immune mechanism in birds, murines and humans, is relatively unknown in fish immunity. Adoptive transfer, which is one of the most valuable and practical approaches for tracing roles of immunocompetent cells, was applied in order to understand the immune system of rainbow trout. Cyclophosphamide and mitomycin C were tested to determine a competency for immunosuppressive agent against rainbow trout immunized with goldish red blood cells (GFRBC). Cyslophosphamide of an intraperitoneal injection dose of 400-500mg/kg was best suppressible, while mitomycin C of a high dose was acutely toxic but a low dose indicated an unsuppressive function in the titration of antiGFRBC antibody. When lymphocytes isolated from the blood and spleen of GFRBC-primed cyclophosphamide-administered rainbow trout were intravascularly transferred to unprimed rainbow trout, the antibody titers of the recipients became markedly low or undetectable, This suggested that the transfer of cyclophosphamide-resistant cells were ineffective and, therefore, the lack of cyclophosphamide-sensitive cells was fatal to the immune response of the recipients. When lymphocytes including cyclophosphamide-resistant cells and cycophosphamide-sensitive cells, separated from GFRBC-primde donors were transferred to immunological non-responders as recipients (which were treated with cyclophosphamide), the antibody respomse of the recipients was restored to the same titer levels as in normally immunized trout and normally transferred trout. The restoration in this adoptive transfer is able to support the following tow points: an antibody response of rainbow trout clearly depends upon two lymphocyte subpopulations, cyclophosphamide-sensitive cells and cyclophosphamide-resistant cells;and a cell-to cell cooperation of the two cell lines is indispensable for the production of the antibody.

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In the case of model testing of fishing gears made of the netting twines such as polyethylene and polypropylene, according to TAUTI's law of similarity for model testing, we have to use those netting twines which float in water for making model nets of such fishing gears. The proper netting materials for the model nets, however, are not found among such netting twines. In this paper, two testing methods for using nylon netting twine, instead of the netting twines with specific gravity smaller than unity, were discussde.
One of the methods is to distribute evenly a number of small floats over the nylon netting panels of the model net, so that the specific gravity may become smaller than unity. This method showed experimentally to be effective over a relatively wide range of current speed. In the case of rather high speed movable gears such as trawl gears, another method of model testing theoretically showed that the value of speed ratio between the model and full scale could decaded arbitrarily, pro-vided that the apparent weight of webbing in water was negligibly small compared with water re-sistance.

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In order to elucidate the mechanism of vitellin deposition into the ovary, the hemolymph lipoprotein was electrophoretically analyzed in a freshwater shrimp Palaemon paucidens.
Totally 16 lipoproteins were detected in the pregnant female hemolymph by polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis at pH 8.25. The hemolymph level of female-specific lipoproteins (FSL) varied periodically in the course of vitellogenesis.
The duration of molting stage B was characteristically elongated by reproduction. The pregnant shrimp molted when maximum egg diameter (MED) in the ovary grew to about 600μm, neverthless molting process was depressed by reproduction. In the ovary stage of MED below 600 μm, FSL level was high in molting stages B and D. In MED above than 600 μm, it was high only in stage B. The level gradually fell prior to maturation.
The characteristic rise of FSL at the molting stage B which was elongated by reproduction refleted the competitive hormonal interaction between reproduction and molting process.

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A computer simulation was performed to examine the schooling mechanism. The model uses the basic assumptions that the speed and direction of individual movements are stochastic variables, and that the direction of movement is related to the location and heading of the neigh-bors. Three behavioral interactions between individuals and the were considered approach avoidance and parallel orientation movements Individual movements and tje resultant group movement were simulated by repeatedly generating random numbers.
It was found that group movements in unity could occur despite each indicidual lacking knowledge of movement of the entire school, and in the absence of a consistent leader. The results lead to the following conclusions: for effective schooling to occur, individuals must pissess two types of behavior; 1. approach movement to allow aggregation, and 2. parallel orientation movement to allow the group ro move cohesively. Experiments were also performed with varied combinations of model parameters, and a wide variation in the movement pattern of the simulated schoolwas obtained.

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In order to grasp the problems on discards by the danish seine fishery, the operations of the fishery were observed aboard and the samples of discards were collected. The obtained results are as follows;
Discards per haul ranged from 30 to 120kg in weight, and its weight and species compositions differ among fishing grounds and among the operation modes, especially the catch in Taraba (deeper than 200m) being mire than in Okaba (less than 200m in depth). In mist sought after species of the fishery, the small, unmarketable size was discarded and this percentage ranged from 15 to 50% of all discards in weight. Comparsion betweem the same as or more than the other, and especially the discards of Glyptocephalus stelleri, Chionoecetes opilio were remarkable. This result may suggest a possibility that improvements of the fishing gear and operation mode increase production of the marketable catch to some degree in the danish seine fishery.

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Field experiments were carried out with full scale mid water trawl nets and ships off the coast of Kushiro, between 1979 and 1980.
We present in this paper a new and direct method of measuring the mechanical characters of a mid water trawl. The key point of this method is that all data from each sensor is recorded by analogue data recorder simultaneoulsy and continuously.
By processing these data, we can get various important clues for the control of the motion of mid water trawl and they contribute to its design.

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These studies were undertaken to describe the system models of a mid water trawl by a first order linear system and to identify their system parameters.
As the method of experiments, one is a step respones metheod and another is a frequency re-sponese method.
According to the srsult, system parameters (gain coefficient and time constant) were setimated by the curve fitting method applying the computer simulation technique and they were very acceptable.
And the following, a mid water trawl is cintrolled by warp length or p.pitch, their time cinstants are very large so that dynamic motion is very slow.

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Since the summer of 1977 there has been prevalent occurrence of epizootic by gliding bacterium among cultured yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata in Kochi Prefecture. Typical symptoms of the disease observed were as follows; erosin of the mouth, frizzle of the fins and rot of the tail. In this study morphological, biological and biochemical characteristics were investigated with the isolated strain and Flexibacter marinus strain. The isolate was gram negative, oxidase positive and catalase negative 0.2 ?? 0.4×2 ?? 6μm rod with flexible movement. Resting stage was not observed in the fish tissue nor on the medium. Growth was observed on media with seawater but not on media with NaCl. Growth was observed at 37°C but not at pH 4. Production of indol, H₂S, gas, acetoin and pigment were negative. Ammonium production was positive. Nitrate reduction was negative. Gelatin liquefaction was positive. Hydrolysis of casein, chitin and starch were positive but hydrolysis of arginine and esculin were negative, Twenty-six carbogydrates were not utilized. Dissolu-tion of hide powder and tyrosin were positive but dissolution of xantine was negative. Lipase, urease and congo red tests were positive but dissolution of xantine was negative. Lipase, urease and congo red tests were positive. From these results the isolated strain was classified into the genus Cytophaga.

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Experimental fish nursery of Pagrus major using acoustic conditioning had been constructed by Ohita Prefectural Fisheries Experimental Station. Young of Pagrus major were conditioned to feed immediately when the sound started in the feeding net cage, then they were released in Yonozu bay. In the bay, they were fed by an automatic feeder (feeding buoy) subsequently. After seven months, the behavioral characters and community ecology of fishes around the feeder were investigated by direct observation and by some automatic recording instruments. As results, some phenomena concerning the behavior of fishes were found as follows.
(1) Around the feeder, fifty-seven kinds of fishes were found and the dominans were Navodon modestus, Parapristipoma trilineatum and Pagrus major.
(2) In the daytime, Navodon modestus aggregated beneath the feeder or near the aritificial reefs, and when artificial diet was scatered by the feeder, they clustered beneath the feeder and fed actively. in the nighttime, theyrested at the bottom near the artificial reefs.
(3) Parapristipoma trilineatum aggregated around the rocks near the feeder in the daytime, and fed the diet in the nighttime.
(4) Pagrus major (16-17cm in total length) came near the feeder only in the daytime and fed at the bottom.
(5) It seemed that most of the diet scattered from the feeder was fed on by these three species of fishes, and it was calculated that Pagrus major fed on about 20 percent of all diet scattered.

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Vavious species of bacteria have been isolated from cultured from cultured fish; the Aeromonas group, in particular, was found most frequently in all the fish examined, followed by Flavobacterium and Pseudomonas. Resistance patterns of R plasmids from drug resistant organisms were often observed resistance to (TC. CM. SM. SA), (CM. SM. SA), (TC. SM. SA) and (TC. SA). R plasmids encoding resistance to (TC. SA), (SA) and (CM.SM.SA) are characteristic of bacteria in fish.
We also found a high frequency of nonconjugative drug resistant plasmids from drug resistant strains.
These plasmids were mobilized in the presence of conjugative plasmids at a high frequency.

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The map of biological classification of eutrophic level in several areas of the Inland Sea of Seto was made to illustrate a difference of the water quality in these areas, using phytoplankton indicator system proposed by the authors.
The data on phytoplankton in Osaka Bay, Harima Nada, Hiuchi Nada, Hiroshima Bay, and Suho Nada and its adjacent areas were mainly quoted from the report on “ Investigation on the forecasting of red tide in the Inland Sea of Seto in 1978 ”.
In the areas studied, it was found to be classified in four eutrophic regions, such as the region between oligotrophic and eutrophic ones, the eutrophic region, the region between eutrophic and extremely eutrophic ones, and the extremely eutrophic region. The coast of Hiuchi Nada alone was illustrated as the region between oligotrophic and eutrophic ones. The largest parts in these areas were illustrated as the eutrophic region. The inner parts of Osaka Bay and Hiroshima Bay, the inshore part near Hofu City in Suho Nada, and Dokai Bay were illustrated as the extremely eutrophic region. These results indicated that the water quality on biological condition in these areas studied was comparable to or more eutrophic than that of Harima Nada where the red tide consisting of Chattonella sp. often occurred.

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Active Fish Protein Powder (AFPP) is the spray-dried fish meat powder that retains the functionality of fresh fish meat.
In order to research the various factors that affect the activity of AFPP, the effects of additives, pH, ionic strength, the duration of washing of the raw fish meat, and the temperature of spray-dring were studied.
A fresh fish meat of Alaska pollack was washed several times, milled with saccharide and other additives, and spray-dried. The activity of AFPP was measured by ATPase-activity and its Kamaboko-forming ability.
Saccharide prevented the denaturation of fish meat protein durin gspray-drying. In order to produce the highly active AFPP, about 25% of saccharide must be added to fish meat, calculated by dry weight.
The pH of fish meat was one of the most important factors in the producing of AFPP. The highly active AFPP was made from the fish meat of neutral pH and the less active AFPP was made from the fish meat of acidic and alkaline pH.
The high ionic strength of fish meat decreased the activity of AFPP. The washing time of raw fish meat affected the quality of AFPP. The well-washed meat increased the activity and whiteness of AFPP.
The inlet and outlet air temperature of spray-drying affected the activity of AFPP very much.

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Bolero 8EC, a herbicide used in rece culture, was moderately toxic to four species of aquatic invertebrates and three species of freshwater fishes in actute toxicity tests. The 96-h LC50's or 48-h LC50's ranged from 1.0 to 6.5mg/l for amphipods Gammarus pseudoimnaeus, daphnids Daphnia magna, juvenile crayfish Orconectes nais, and mature red crayfish Procambarus clarki and from 1.2 to 2.3 mg/l for rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri, bluegills Lepomis macrochirus, and channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus. Bioconcentration of ¹⁴C-Bolero during a five day exposure ranged from 10 to 168 for four species of invertebrates and from 48 to 471 for four species of fish. Residues of the herbicide(¹⁴C-Bolero) were rapidly eliminated when fish and invertebrates were placed into fresh water. More than 50 percent of the total ¹⁴C-radioactivity was eliminated within 24 h by all organisms tested except the red cryafish whose residues in tail tissues declined by 50 percent within 10 days. Judging by the moderately acute toxicity, low bioconcentration, and rapid elimination of residues in fresh water, we suggest that the use of Bolero 8EC will probably result in little environmental hazard to freshwater organisms.

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To clatify the post-mortem proteolysis of fish muscle, carp muscle cathepsin A was purified and its properties were investigated. The purification was about 1, 700-fold, with a yield of 1.5%. The purification procedures were as follows: acid treatment, heat treatment, ammonium sulfate fractionation, acetone fractionation, DEAE-Sephadex A-50 chromatography, preparative electrofocusing, and Sepharose 6B gel filtration.
The enzyme hydrolyzed Z-Glu-Phe more preferably than Z-Glu-Tyr, with the optimum pHwas 5.0. The Km values for Z-Glu-Phe and Z-Glu-Tyr were estimated to be 3.52m_M and 4.76m_M, respectively. Z-Gly-Pro was not hydrolyzed by the enzyme. On the other hand, the enzyme did not act on any protein substrates used. The enzyme activity was completely inhibited by Dip-F, PMSF, iodoacetamide, and antipain, but activated by 2-mercaptoethanol, NaI, and NaBr. Therefore, serine and cysteine residues may be involved for the activity. Pepstatin, EDTA, and o-phenanthroline had no effect on the activity. The molecular weight of the enzyme was estimated to be 36, 000 by gel filtration and the isoelectric point to be 4.6.
At pH 5.0 carp muscle homogenate autolyzed considerably at 37°C for 24 hours. But cathepsin A had no electorphoretically recognizble effect on the autolysis. Therefore, the enzyme doesn ' t seem to participate directly in post-mortem degradation of fish muscle.

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In order to establish a basal diet suitable for a nutritional requirement study of yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata, the nutritive values of two pruified test diets used previously for yellowtail were tested by comparing the effects of the diets on the growth of young yellowtail and on the feed efficiency.
The casein (T-diet) and casein gelatin (Y-diet) diets were the test diets.
When fed the T-diet, fish in the 10g (average body weight) size group exhibited high growth and the diet produced high feed efficiency. However, fish in the 20g or 40g (average body weight) size group when fed the same diet experienced low growth with high mortalities; the feed efficiency also was low.
The fish in the 10g size group fed on the Y-diet exhibited high feed intake, but their growth was quite poor, As a result, the feed efficiency of the Y-diet was extremely low. The low nutritive value of the Y-diet was thought to be attributable to its low pH (4.7). Therefore, the diet was ad-justed to pH 6.7 with 3% sodium hydroxied (Yp-diet). This diet produced high growth of fish and high feed efficiency, and its nutritive value was superior to those of T-diet and Y-diet.
From these results, we propose that the Yp-diet (pH about 6.7) composed of 64.2% casein, 13.5% gelatin, 90% pollack liver oil, 7.0% mineral mixture, 3.0% vitamin mixture, 2.3% supple-mental amino acids, and 1.0% attractants can be used as a provisional basal diet for the nutritional study of yellowtails.

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The nutritive values of various oils for yellowtail Seriola quinqueradiata were tested in a feeding trial. Five oils; pollack liver, herring, squid liver, sardine, and skip-jack oils, were used in the present study.
Prior to the feeding trials, fatty acids of the oils tested were analyzed.
The concentration of ω3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) with numbers of carbons higher than 20 was more than 20% in squid liver, sardine, and skjp-jack oils, and approximately 12% in pollack liver and herring oils.
Five test diets, each containing one oil at a 9% level, were prepared using the provisional basal diet reported previously.
The effects of test diets containing squid liver, sardine, or skip-jqck oils, i. e. those rich in HUFA, on the growth of yellowtail were superior to those of the diets containing pollack liver or herring oils.
The feed efficiency of the HUFA-rich diets was also higer.
These results show that the dietary HUFA level suitable for the growth of yellowtail is com-paratively high. This also suggests that the suitable lipid level for a diet may differ according to the concentration of HUFA in the lipid supplements.

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Moina sp., used as a live food in the seed production of Ayu fish, were cultured with baker's yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, freshwater chlorella Chlorella regularis, and ω-Yest, in order to investigate the effect of fatty acids in Monia on the fatty acid composition of larval Ayu.
The fatty acid compositions of Moina were found to be easily affected by those of the culture media. Moina cultured with baker ' s yeast were high in the content of monoenoic fatty acids such as 16:1 and 18:1. Those cultured with freshwater Chlorella were high in the concent of 18:2ω6 and 18:3ω3. Moina fed on ω-Yeast contained high concentrations of ω3 highly unsaturated fatty acids (ω3HUFA) such as 20:5ω3 and 22:6ω3, reflected by the fatty acids of cuttlefish liver oil in ω-Yeast.
The fatty acid compositions of larval Ayu fed on these Moina with different fatty acids were found to be influenced by the fatty acids in the Moina. The fish fed on Moina cultured cultured with baker's yeast were low in the contents of body lipids and ω3 HUfA, and those fed on Moina cultured with freshwater Chlorella were high in the 18:2ω6 and 18:3ω3 contents. Feeding Moina cultureD with ω-Yeast resulted in the high contents of body lipid and ω3 HUFA.

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The thermal denaturation of carp G-actin was studied by ultracentrifugation, viscometry and circular dichroism and optical rotatory dispersion measuremrnts The transition region of the theemal denaturation of G-actin was found to be around 50°C. At 50°C, both the native and the denatured forms coexisted. The thermal denaturation was accompanied by the decrease of the orderly arranged structures of native G-actin molecules. The denatured G-actin lost the ability to polymerize to F-actin.

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A new natural carotenoid was isolated from the sea sponge Acanthella vulgata. It was shown to be 3-hydroxy-β, χ-carotene, the isomer of agelaxanthin A. The name isoagelaxanthin A is proposed for this carotenoid.

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During examination of the, mechanism involved in tetrodotoxin (TTX) -toxification of a trumpet shell, “ boshubora ” Charonia sauliae, parts of the starfish Astropecten polyacanthus were often found in the contents of the boshubora ' s digestive tract. Paralytic toxicty was detected in specimens of this starfish collected from the places where toxic boshubora specimens were taken.
Attempts were made to isolate the responsible toxin from the starfish y essentially the same methods as used previously fro studying the TTX from boshubora. The thin-layer chronatographic and electrophoretic results from the partially purified toxin, and the GC-MS of its TMS-dericvative, were hardly distinguishable from those of the authentic preparation of TTX, demonstrating the identity of the two toxins.
Thereflre, it was concluded that the TTX which accumulated in the toxic boshubora came from this starfish, which had been ingested.

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