Mutant alleles of EXT1 or EXT2, two members of the exostosin (EXT) gene family, are causative agents of hereditary multiple exostoses, and their gene products function together as a polymerase in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate. EXTL2 is one of the three EXT-like genes homologous to tumor suppressor EXT gene family members and encodes an N-acetylhexosaminyltransferase. However, the role of EXTL2 in the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and the biological significance of EXTL2 were previously unclear. Our studies have revealed that EXTL2 controls GAG biosynthesis, and abnormal biosynthesis of GAGs due to the loss of EXTL2 affects pathological processes. In this minireview, we focus on the functional importance of EXTL2 in GAG biosynthesis and how decreased EXTL2 expression is involved in the progression of various diseases.

Emerging significance of carbohydrates in various biological processes has accelerated the development and application of carbohydrate-binding small molecules (lectin mimics). In the past three decades, tremendous progress has been seen in designing lectin mimics that can capture carbohydrates in aqueous media. The efforts to use carbohydrate-binding natural products in carbohydrate research have been also initiated in recent years. By focusing on the lectin mimics of synthetic and natural origins, this minireview outlines their molecular basis of carbohydrate recognition, and discusses their potential for application in carbohydrate research.

Glass transition is a phenomenon in which an amorphous phase undergoes an abrupt change in its thermodynamic properties at a certain temperature referred to as that material’s glass transition temperature (T_g). Recently, studies have been conducted on the glass transition of glycolipids, including carbohydrate-based surfactants, which have covalently linked sugar and hydrocarbon moieties. These are reported to form various phases such as the glassy lamellar gel (L_β) phases, glassy thermotropic liquid crystal (LC) phases like the fluid lamellar (L_α), hexagonal columnar (Col_h) and cubic LC phases, and glassy lyotropic LC phases such as L_α and cubic LC phases. In addition, the relationships between the structure of glycolipids, their LC phases, and T_g have been reported. Furthermore, the phase transition between L_α and L_β phases in the glassy state and the relaxation behavior of structural and thermodynamic parameters at glass transition have been investigated. These results reveal the universality of the glass transition phenomenon, as well as some properties specific to the glass transition of glycolipids. Several promising applications have been proposed for pharmaceutical fields. Future research is expected to shed light on the glass transition of glycolipids and glycans in biomembranes and their contribution to the expression of functions.

Mutant alleles of EXT1 or EXT2, two members of the exostosin (EXT) gene family, are causative agents of hereditary multiple exostoses, and their gene products function together as a polymerase in the biosynthesis of heparan sulfate. EXTL2 is one of the three EXT-like genes homologous to tumor suppressor EXT gene family members and encodes an N-acetylhexosaminyltransferase. However, the role of EXTL2 in the biosynthesis of glycosaminoglycan (GAG) and the biological significance of EXTL2 were previously unclear. Our studies have revealed that EXTL2 controls GAG biosynthesis, and abnormal biosynthesis of GAGs due to the loss of EXTL2 affects pathological processes. In this minireview, we focus on the functional importance of EXTL2 in GAG biosynthesis and how decreased EXTL2 expression is involved in the progression of various diseases.

Emerging significance of carbohydrates in various biological processes has accelerated the development and application of carbohydrate-binding small molecules (lectin mimics). In the past three decades, tremendous progress has been seen in designing lectin mimics that can capture carbohydrates in aqueous media. The efforts to use carbohydrate-binding natural products in carbohydrate research have been also initiated in recent years. By focusing on the lectin mimics of synthetic and natural origins, this minireview outlines their molecular basis of carbohydrate recognition, and discusses their potential for application in carbohydrate research.

Glass transition is a phenomenon in which an amorphous phase undergoes an abrupt change in its thermodynamic properties at a certain temperature referred to as that material’s glass transition temperature (T_g). Recently, studies have been conducted on the glass transition of glycolipids, including carbohydrate-based surfactants, which have covalently linked sugar and hydrocarbon moieties. These are reported to form various phases such as the glassy lamellar gel (L_β) phases, glassy thermotropic liquid crystal (LC) phases like the fluid lamellar (L_α), hexagonal columnar (Col_h) and cubic LC phases, and glassy lyotropic LC phases such as L_α and cubic LC phases. In addition, the relationships between the structure of glycolipids, their LC phases, and T_g have been reported. Furthermore, the phase transition between L_α and L_β phases in the glassy state and the relaxation behavior of structural and thermodynamic parameters at glass transition have been investigated. These results reveal the universality of the glass transition phenomenon, as well as some properties specific to the glass transition of glycolipids. Several promising applications have been proposed for pharmaceutical fields. Future research is expected to shed light on the glass transition of glycolipids and glycans in biomembranes and their contribution to the expression of functions.