OGYŪ Sorai (1666-1728) researched ancient Chinese music in order to explore the music of great Chinese rulers from remote antiquity that was considered to be ideal, and came to propose the theory that specifications of tonal systems and modes for music from the Zhou and Han dynasties―which had been passed on from the musical system of rulers in antiquity―survive in the tōgaku style of Japanese gagaku. In order to clarify the course of OGYŪ's research on tonal systems that led him to that formulation and to illuminate the details of his work, the present study reviews the contents of Gakuritsu-kō (Reflections on musical pitches), Gakusei-hen (On musical systems), and Kingaku-taii-shō (A general study of the qin)―all of which discuss tonal systems ―after consideration of the circumstances in which each of these works was written. It thereby looks at the way OGYŪ verified his theory. The major findings of this study are summarized as follows:

    1. According to Gakuritsu-kō-kai (Exposition on Gakuritsu-kō) by OGYŪ Hokkei (Sorai's brother) and Butsufūshi Chojyutsu Shomoku Hoki (Additional list of books by OGYŪ Sorai) by USAMI Shinsui, Gakuritsu-kō was written in Sorai's early years, and it, along with Gakuritsu-hen, seems to have originally been included in his five-part work, titled Taigaku Hakki (Illuminating and elucidating great music).
    2. Gakuritsu-kō maintains that the pitch of the fundamental note huangzhong in the musical tonal system of the Zhou and Han dynasties corresponds to the pitch ōshiki in the twelve-tone system of Japanese music. Sorai arrives at this theory by determining the pitch of a huangzhong pitch pipe from the Zhou Dynasty using the measurement system of the time, based on literature research, and from analyzing the tunings of the Japanese shō and Chinese qin, as well as the range of human voices. Sorai seems to have created pitch pipes himself and tested their pitches.
    3. Gakusei-hen proposes that five modes used in the music of the Zhou and Han dynasties were passed on as modes for the qin and Japanese gagaku. This theory is drawn from examining the tunings of the qin and the Japanese gakusō, in addition to reflections on a study of literature.
    4. A linkage between Kingaku-taii-shō and another of Sorai's works, Yūran-fu-shō (Annotated "Youlan" notation), suggests that he wrote Kingaku-taii-shō for the purpose of resuscitating ancient music by reconstructing the old qin notation, Jieshi-diao Youlan Part 5（Jp. Kesseki-chō Yuran Part 5).
    5. Two chapters in Kingaku-taii-shō, "Kin no shirabe-yō no koto" (Modes of the qin tunings) and "Kin shichigen jusan-ki no teii no koto" (Fixed positions of the 13 hui (jp. ki, markers) on the seven-stringed qin) solidify the perspective evinced in Gakusei-hen by providing details on the correspondence of the modes of qin tuning to each mode of ancient Chinese music and Japanese gagaku. Sorai uses the results of this analysis in interpreting the tunings in reconstructing Jieshi-diao Youlan Part 5.
    6. The significance of Sorai's research lies in its connection of the idealized music of kings from the remote past with music that exists in reality through the commonality of shared tonal systems, thereby making li-yue (jp. reigaku, rites and music) into something that can be put into practice.

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    This study considers the changes in the arena of sankyoku performance using the Japanese music journal of Sankyoku (1921-44) as a resource. Sankyoku is a genre of music consisting of three elements: jiuta (ziuta), sôkyoku, and shakuhachi (syakuhati). Although jiuta and sôkyoku are performed by one musician, shakuhachi is a separate genre. However, as there are many pieces that can be played as an ensemble, there are many opportunities for joint performances, and this is generally treated as one genre of music called sankyoku. Moreover, within sankyoku there are numerous groups (kaiha) and affiliated organizations both within and outside the main schools (ryû, ryûha), and most concerts are held by units such as these groups and affiliated organizations. Accordingly, the author considers that by clarifying the changes in sankyoku concerts, it is possible to trace the changes in the entire sankyoku world, including its devotees.
    The journal of Sankyoku, to which sankyoku specialists subscribed, featured information about concerts held across Japan in its bulletin columns, news columns about musicians, concert programs, and articles. In this era, there were diverse concerts besides the regular ones in which groups of pupils performed. These included special concerts for the purposes of mourning or celebration, presentation of musical creations, large-scale concerts that gathered famous musicians together, and concert tours. Therefore, this study categorizes sankyoku concerts according to their purpose, and considers the changes in each category on the basis of the concert information published in Sankyoku.
    Prior to this categorization, the author considers the changes in onshûkai (onsyûkai) from the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Consequently, the following points are verified. Sankyoku was not mixed with Western music concerts; rather, regular public concerts with a program centered on sankyoku became the main concert in which sankyoku musicians performed. The traditional monthly concerts, known as tsukinamikai (tukinamikai), continued to be closed to the public. On the other hand, audience-oriented and highly appreciated regular concerts emerged. Furthermore, concert venues changed from traditional Japanese restaurants with tatami floor seating to halls with Western-style chair seating.
    Next, the author provides a summary of the concert information in Sankyoku and confirms its regional expansion. In Sankyoku, around 10,000 concerts were featured over 24 years, and approximately 80% of these were regular concerts. The regions where concerts were held expanded to include all of Japan, except Okinawa, the "overseas territories" of Taiwan, Sakhalin (then known as Karafuto), Korea, Manchuria, the Chinese republic, the USA, and Thailand. Two characteristics are indicated in regard to the overall transition of concerts over the 24-year period: reaching their peak in 1931, concerts fluctuated thereafter and decreased, following the Manchurian Incident in September of the same year.

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    This paper clarifies how the definition of musical skills was gendered in the early 20th century Japan. This is shown from the point of view of (1) images in Sugoroku (a kind ofJapanese board game that was sometimes attached to girls' magazines) and (2) discourse in articles in girls' magazines, the different perceptions of Japanese traditional music skills, and modern western music skills.
    The findings of this report are as follows.

1. The Shamisen was performed by many upper- and middle-class girls in Tokyo but was not mentioned as a musical skill in Sugoroku. This was because the Shamisen was associated with Geisha, and to describe it in the media as being for children was thought to be unsuitable.
2. For women, western musical instruments such as the piano or violin were associated with career success, but Japanese traditional musical instruments such as the Koto were not.
3. For women, mastering a western musical instrument was seen as important cultural capital to call attention to oneself not only in society but also in everyday life. On the other hand, for Japanese traditional musical instruments such as the Koto, self-discipline was important.

    In this study we are able to consider more deeply how the mastery of music was gendered, although not from the girls' high school culture, which placed importance on western music education, but from mass culture such as magazines. As a result, we have images of Japanese traditional musical skills of girls and girls' performances of western music in their homes.

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    An instrument called the 五絃阮 wu-xian ruan (“five-stringed ruan”) emerged during the Song Dynasty. In Volume 38 of the 続資治通鑑長編 Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian°(“Extended Continuation to 'Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance,'“) a chronicle compiled by 李燾 Li Tao(1115-1184), a scholar-official of the Southern Song period, the following account is found.

    至道元年・・・・上嘗謂・・・・阮四絃、今増為五、日金、木、水、火、土、則五材並用而不悖矣・・・

      First year of 至道 Zhidao (995) …As was once spoken by Emperor 太宗 Taizong,… The ruan has four strings. With the addition of a fifth string, the strings represent, as it were, the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire, and earth. Thus, using an instrument with these five elements does not contravene principles.

    As the account says, the ruan, which was originally a four stringed instrument, became a five string (五絃wu-xian) instrument after a string was added by the Emperor Taizong. There is also an account detailing the tuning of the wu-xian ruan in the 樂書 Yueshu (“treatise on music,”) written by the Song Dynasty scholar Chen Yang. Consulting the description from Yueshu and Yang (1981), here l reconstruct the turning system of wu-sian ruan approximately A#-c#-f-g#-a#, from the lower string. This turning system can be concluded as a variation of 羽調式型 yu-diaoshi system. Coincidentally, yu-diaoshi system well accord with Japanese 清風調 seifūchō-system, which is reported by 10th century Japanese article 倭名類聚抄 Wamyō Ruijushō (“Japanese names for things classified and annotated,”) as turning system for the ruan.

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