This paper focuses on the concept and purpose of borders or frontiers in ancient Egypt from a geographical view.
Egypt is surrounded by desert on both sides of the Nile. The natural environment and isolated geographical location formed a natural barrier from foreign invasions, as well as providing very effective internal communications through the Nile.
The borders or frontiers of ancient Egypt were not consistent throughout history. They were not easily distinguishable by the lines of demarcation. Particularly away from the Nile, aecumene regions or ‘empty lands’ were geographically stretched out very wide.
The Definition of a border or frontier in ancient Egypt is diverse and sometimes contradictory. Historically they represent delineations of geographical, political, administrative, religious and cosmological order: aspects different from the modern borders or frontiers. Two terms which may be recognized as an expression of the borders and frontiers are in hieroglyphics: t3š expresses the actual geographical borders, and drw expresses the end of the cosmos, and frontiers far beyond the range of t3š.
When considering either the borders or frontiers of ancient Egypt from a functional point of view, at least five types can be considered: natural, administrative, political, religious, and ethnic borders or frontiers. Each had its own function and geographical range.
Natural borders were very stable geographically and geomorphologically only limited to the Nile Valley down to the First Cataract and the desert margins to the both sides of the Nile in the Delta regions. Administrative borders delineated by the margins of the frontier nomes were almost equal to the natural borders during the Dynastic era. The administrative borders extended much further than the natural borders at the Greco-Roman era by the establishment of new nomes outside of the traditional range of Egypt. Political borders, de facto limits of the state, were rather dynamic in its expansion, according to the foreign affairs. Guarding the borders from the foreign invaders and bedouins was recognized as one of the most important tasks for the pharaohs to undertake as lords of not only Upper and Lower Egypt, but also of foreign lands, beyond the borders of Egypt. Ethnic frontiers were not clearly distinguishable expect through their difference in faith, language and customs.
The activities of the agricultural production were not typically in the frontier regions. The temples, military parks, custom posts and fortresses were scattered and placed in strategic points in the frontier zones, near trading centers with the neighboring countries. Their location represented the geographical distance of the frontier as well as their position with respect to their neighbors.

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Makeup cosmetics have been used in ancient times for the purpose of religious acts or expression of user’s authorities. The meaning of makeup changes with the times, and nowadays it is mainly used for the expression of personal beauty and tidy appearance. The main function of the makeup products are visual effects such as hiding of skin troubles, modifying the skin color and texture, and making users look more attractive with color and brilliance. In addition, recent makeup products also offer protective function such as moisturization or UV protection. Furthermore, research about the psychological effects by using makeup products is also in progress such as gaining confidence, satisfaction and sociality. There are various makeup products with different application area, and their usage method and required finishing state differ depending on each product. Therefore, in order to use makeup products safely and effectively, it is important to understand the composition of each product and usage method including the package and the applicator. In this article, I explain the formulation composition and several essential raw materials of each makeup product, and outline the molding technology and usage.

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Dans ce traite, on se propose d'abord d'etudier les caracteristiques du monachisme clunisien, et puis examiner les conditions reelles de son developpement sous l'abbatiat de Saint Odilon. Ce qui constitue l'originalite du monachisme clunisien, comme par exemple la celebration chorale de l'office divin, l'importance extreme attachee a la messe quotidienne et conventuelle et la devotion a l'Eucharistie, c'est, en un mot, l'ascetisme liturgique. La vie liturgique a besoin de beaucoup de pretres et diacres, de sorte qu'elle a pousse de nombreux moines (le tiers de l'effectif au moins) a recevoir le clericature. La tendance a l'apostolat (l'action pastorale), l'independance de l'autorite episcopale, la formation de l'ordre exempt, tout cela se rattache etroitement a l'usage du sacerdoce des moines (il sacerdozio dei monaci). Vers l'an mil, Cluny etait consideree comme le centre de la priere intermediaire a cause de sa observation rigoureuse (districtio ordinis) de la Regle de Saint Benoit. La noblesse laique et ecclesiastique recevait la confraternite (confraternitas) des moines de Cluny. Elle etait admise a l'association particulierement intime aux prieres et aux aumones de Cluny et de ses prieures. L'augmentation du nombre du culte des moines, dont la place centrale etait donnee aux messes privees et psalmodies, fut une des causes de la popularite de Cluny. Par consequent, la celebre abbaye bourguignonne s'enfichit par des donations venues de toute la chretiente au nom du precaire (precaria). Cluny, aidee par le desir des precaristes (non seulement les petits paysans alleutiers et les petits et moyens seigneurs, mais aussi les grands proprietaires fonciers) de conserver surement leurs alleux ou seigneuries allodiales et de faire des maisons clunisiennes une zone neutre, obtint l'autonomie presque totale a la fin du X^e siecle. Cluny, en gardant une habile neutralite, adopta la politique de la balance des pouvoirs vis-a-vis des puissances locales. Mais la grandeur de Cluny, c'est qu'elle a reussi a organiser des croisades bourguignonnes et aquitaines, a mobiliser beaucoup de chevgliers francais au-dela des Pyrenees et a realiser la "Veredelung des ritterlichen Lebens" (H.Mitteis). Le monachisme clunisien s'etablit par la creation de la congregation qui fut centralisee pour se defendre contre le monde anarchique ; L'effort de reduire des abbayes au rang des simples celles, la profession obligatoire des moines aupres de l'abbe de Cluny, le droit de nomination et de destitution des prieurs possede par le chef de l'ordre, les visites frequentes effectuees par le superieur de Cluny en personne, le payement d'un cens annuel a Cluny, tout cela est le moyen employe pour confirmer la suprematie absolue de l'abbe de Cluny et pour constituer et maintenir "monachorum bellicus ordo" (Adalberon) hierarchise. Gregoire V conccde en 998 aux clunisiens le privilege de s'adresser a l'eveque qu'ils veulent pour les ministeres pontificaux, telles que les ordinations et les consecrations. En 1024, Jean XIX interdit aux eveques d'excommunier et anathematiser les religieux du monastere de Cluny, en quelque endroit qu'ils se trouvent (ubicunque Positi). Un peu apres 1030, l'ordre de Cluny acheva sa periode de formation ; L'entree de Gauzlin, eveque de Macon, a Cluny pour y embrasser la vie monastique (en 1030) et le refus d'Odilon d'assumer la charge de l'archeveche de Lyon (en 1030) en temoignent. Le developpement de l'autorite de l'ordre exempt de Cluny entraine necessairement l'expansion de son rayon d'action. En France, le pouvoir de l'abbe de Cluny s'exercait sur environ 80 monasteres. La plupart d'entre eux se trouvaient en Bourgogne et en

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