We analyzed lead concentrations in bones from both genders of Japanese merchants (including rohnin ; masterless samurai) and farmer classes, and compared the findings with those of the samurai class in the Edo period (1603-1867) to clarify gender and hierarchical (or occupational) differences in lead exposure during the Japanese feudal age. Merchant class females had significantly higher lead exposure (90.8μg Pb/g dry bone ; n=20) than males of the same class (39.9μgPb/g dry bone ; n=31) (p<0.01), indicating a remarkable gender difference in the urban population. In contrast to these high concentrations, males and females of the farmer class living in agricultural (or semi-rural) areas had significantly lower exposure (total mean value ; 9.2 μg Pb/g dry bone ; n=4) than both gender of the merchant class (p<0.001), and the gender difference was not seen in this class.
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