As part of an inquiry into changes in the modern concept of "art," in this article I examine the scope of "art" and the position of calligraphy in the Ryūchikai 龍池會, which was founded in 1879 as the first Japanese art association (and was later renamed Japan Art Association). Prompted by the Ryūchikai's treatment of calligraphy as art, in 1882 Koyama Shōtarō 小山正太郎 published an essay entitled "Calligraphy Is Not Art" ("Sho wa bijutsu narazu" 書ハ美術ナラス). But following a careful examination of the official organs of the Ryūchikai and Japan Art Association, it has become clear that already prior to the publication of this essay there were differences of opinion among members of the Ryūchikai about whether or not to include calligraphy in "art." Furthermore, while a small number of early pieces of calligraphy were exhibited as examples of old works in exhibitions sponsored by the Ryūchikai and Japan Art Association, no requests were made for exhibits of new pieces of calligraphy, and it was confirmed that in effect there was a strong tendency to exclude calligraphy from "art."
  In response to this state of affairs, calligraphers led by Watanabe Saō 渡邊沙鷗 established the Rikusho Kyōkai 六書協會 within the Japan Art Association with the aim of having calligraphy treated in the same way as painting. But the Japan Art Association instructed them to disband four years later, and so the calligraphers decided to resign from the Japan Art Association. The following year they established their own Japan Calligraphy Association and actively campaigned to have calligraphy exhibited at art exhibitions sponsored by the Ministry of Education and at other exhibitions and expositions. The Rikusho Kyōkai merits renewed attention as a pioneering group that aspired to have calligraphy recognized as a form of "art" and held exhibitions of only calligraphy on a continuing basis.

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As moves towards establishing institutional systems for art accelerated on the part of the administration during the Meiji 明治 era, calligraphy too underwent major changes. The realities of these changes were strikingly demonstrated by the emergence of the so-called Six Dynasties school of calligraphy. It is generally acknowledged that the Chinese scholar-collector Yang Shoujing 楊守敬 came to Japan with a large corpus of materials related to bronze and stone inscriptions, whereupon Kusakabe Meikaku

and other Japanese calligraphers who were stimulated by their contact with him established the new style of Six Dynasties calligraphy, sweeping away old calligraphic conventions. But this does not necessarily accord with actual developments thereafter. The new style of calligraphy proposed by Meikaku and others had a strong correlation with existing Tang-style calligraphy, and its character was such that it could be better referred to as “new Japanese-style calligraphy.” Subsequently the direction taken by Meikaku and others came to form the central axis of calligraphy during the Meiji era, but it was only natural that calligraphers and groups advocating a different orientation should have appeared, and the Six Dynasties school of calligraphy assumed a multilayered character.

  In this article, I first examine the actual substance of the Six Dynasties school of calligraphy as advocated by Meikaku and others, and then I undertake an examination of the activities of the Ryūminkai 龍眠会 (Society of the Slumbering Dragon) founded by Nakamura Fusetsu 中村不折 and others who lay at the opposite pole among the various parties espousing Six Dynasties calligraphy. Research into the history of Japanese calligraphy during the modern period has until now been primarily concerned with publicly recognizing outstanding calligraphers individually, and a stance that would clarify their relationships and trace historical developments has been wanting. In this article, I compare ideas of differing character that were put forward in relation to the Six Dynasties school of calligraphy while also ascertaining changes in calligraphy over time and the circumstances surrounding calligraphy with a view to making a start on forging links between past individual studies.

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  Several calligraphy associations, such as Konohana Kai, Nihon Shodo Kai and Hosho Kai, were established in the Meiji era, and famous calligraphers at that time include Gado Ono, Shundo Nishikawa and Meikaku Kusakabe. On the other hand, Dainihon Sensho Shorei Kai led by Hiromichi Yamakoshi has not been given much attention thus far.

  Dainihon Sensho Shorei Kai held Sensho Tenrankai at the exhibition site in Ueno Park from 1892 onward. After the fourth Naikoku Kangyo Hakurankai in 1895, exhibitions stopped including a calligraphy section during the Meiji era; moreover, there were no public calligraphy exhibitions. In this environment, Sensho Tenrankai was an exhibition for contemporary calligraphers and effectively served as a public exhibition for calligraphers under the age of 20, who were expected to lead the next generation. It was thus a very important opportunity for calligraphers at that time. Shunkai Bundo, who later organized Nihon Shodo Sakushin Kai and successfully held exhibitions at Tokyo-fu Bijutukan, also submitted his works to Sensho Tenrankai and earned a good reputation. Sensho Tenrankai was, so to speak, the predecessor of later large-scale public exhibitions such as Nihon Shodo Sakushin Kai.

  Hiromichi had connections in politics. Leveraging these and responding to the trends in the art world, he worked to promote calligraphy earlier than Sao Watanabe and others. He joined Nihon Shodo Kai in the late Meiji era and played a central role in its administrative work, significantly contributing to the promotion of calligraphy. While other artists dedicated themselves to the movement to establish art museums in the Meiji era, calligraphers organized movements to promote calligraphy, paying attention to the trends in the art world. In the present study, I investigate the activities of calligraphers and their associations, as well as exhibitions of calligraphy at that time ― especially Hiromichi Yamakoshi and Dainihon Sensho Shorei Kai ― to add further depth to our understanding of the field.

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  Hidai Tenrai (Kou, 1872-1939) is one of great calligraphers who marked a significant achievement in the world of calligraphy in modern times and highly appreciated for his contribution in nurturing many disciples who play major roles in the calligraphic society today. Hidai issued “Shogakuin kensetsu shuisyo” in 1919 with the aim to found an institution for comprehensive research of calligraphy. He toured through Japan in order to raise funds for the project and, as a part of the effort, visited Korea in September, 1926, which led to his encounter with excellent works of Korean calligraphy. In 1931, he published Chosen shodo seika (five volumes) with help from some experts and introduced works of Korean calligraphy to a wide Japanese audience, who had known very little about them until then.

  This article examines the reality and positioning of the research by Hidai Tenrai of Korean calligraphy by focusing on Chosen shodo seika, whose value and position have been rarely mentioned beforehand, and by illuminating the background, circumstance, and process of its publication.

  The findings indicate that Hidai actively tried to appreciate works of unknown calligraphers based on his own critical eyes and unique view of calligraphic history. It is highly possible that his effort may have introduced multifaceted viewpoints to the study of Korean calligraphy and on this point, Chosen shodo seika has its significance.

  It should be also appreciated that the fact that Hidai met Kim Donhee and had teaching from him in editing Chosen shodo seika to complete the collection as a kind of joint work had an effect of relativizing the study of Korean calligraphic history, which had been traditionally led by people of the suzerain state.

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This article tries to clarify the position of calligraphy in the history of the movement to found art museums in the Meiji period. While there are some preceding studies on the history of the movement to found art museums such as the discussions of Boku Shogen, there are none which discuss the theme from the perspective of calligraphy.

  With the advent of the Meiji period, the government encouraged nationalistic art, thus provoking objections from Western-style painters that triggered the movement to found art museums. After an exhibition site was torn down, artists themselves developed the movement, actively urged by the sense of crisis. However, very few calligraphers participated.

  After the idea of painting and calligraphy was replaced by the idea of “art” in the early Meiji period, the position of calligraphy remained officially undefined. Accordingly, no sections were spared for calligraphy at National Industrial Exhibitions or at annual art exhibitions sponsored by the Ministry of Education for some years. On the other hand, exhibitions and associations organized solely for calligraphy began to appear around the mid-Meiji period, including Rikusho Kyokai and Dainippon Sensho Shoreikai, which directed themselves toward “art.” In particular, Dainippon Sensho Shoreikai intended to construct “Teikoku Shodokan” and engaged itself in the movement to found art museums in cooperation with other art organizations. Though such efforts are noteworthy as they worked for the independence of calligraphy and its participation in the realm of art at the same time, no detailed discussions have been made to date. This article examines the environment of calligraphy in the Meiji period and illustrates the coexistence of both old and new, where some individuals and organizations developed activities to participate in “art” while traditional shogakais and miyabikais or exhibitions and parties of painting and calligraphy in the Edo style were still active.

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  Senro Kawai (1871-1945) studied seal carving under Kaishin Shinoda, and later went to Qing to study directly under Wu Changshuo. His style, based on and created in accordance with the ancient Chinese imperial seals, the Han seals, and the seal-carving techniques of the Qing dynasty (Zhe School/Deng School), continues to exert great influence as one of the guiding principles for later carvers to follow. He was also well versed in epigraphy, grammatology, appraisal of calligraphy, and painting, and is considered one of the most outstanding modern Japanese carvers.

  In the course of the study, the author divides the transition of Senro's style in seal carving into four periods. The first is the period of Senro's acceptance of the Zhe School style from the age of 19 to 24. The second period is from the age of 25 to 37, when the influence of Chinese classics, especially the noble families of the Qing Dynasty belonging to the Deng School lineage, was strong. The third period is from the age of 38 to 49, in which the pre-Han classics were used as a foundation, and the characteristics of the classics that had been accepted up to that time were integrated. And the fourth period is from the age of 50 to the time of his death at the age of 75, the period of his later years.

  This paper discusses Senro's work in the third period in order to reexamine the conventional theory that his work was at its “zenith” at the age of 47. The age of 38 was a transitional period in which Senro sought a new stylistic direction, and from the age of 39 he explored more universal expressions of seal carving, focusing on the acceptance of the pre-Han classics. At the age of 40, he established a new style that did not stop at imitating or following the noble families in the Qing dynasty, and in his 40s, he worked to cultivate this style, creating works that were equally excellent in workmanship but different in style. Senro's uniqueness in this period includes the use of horizontal lines that turn upward toward the center of the line and downward toward the end of the stroke, inward curves of pairs of vertical lines, folds that bend after accumulating strength, and the contrasting use of rounded and angular parts, all of these expressions as if written with a brush used in seal carving.

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