Shen-tsung, the 6th Emperor of Sung dynasty, received two ambassadors successively from so-called the Western Regions, one sent by the Sultanate of Seljukides, and the other by the East Roman Empire. These two countries confronted keenly each other and the antagonism was the cause of Crusade. The war devastated the Middle East, resulting in a great loss of population. The Seljukides had to recruit Turkish soldiers from Central Asia to reinforce the army. Thus the pressure of Turkish people toward the east became weaken and gave a chance to the neighbour tribes of Mongolia to rise to a new power. Moreover, the Mongol could arm themselves with abundant iron weapons learning the fabricating technique of the Chinese. Taking advantage of the exhaustion of the Turkish people, the Mongol conquered at last the whole Western Regions.

抄録全体を表示

The present article begins with a discussion of the prototype of the Northern Song military regimental system (jiangbing 将兵) as the regiments organized by Fan-Zhongyan 范仲庵 to form the core of his defense strategy in the war with the Xixia during the reign of Emperor Renzong 仁宗, Later the organization would spread throughout the military forces stationed in the Shanxi region. Next, the author confirms the process of the system's further expansion, by which regiments of the Shanxi region active during the reign of Emperor Shenzong in the war with the Xixia and the campaign of territorial expansion into the Xihe 熙河 region not only formed the core of defense operations, but also played an important role in offensive strategy. He then shows that 1) the jianbing system of the Shanxi region developed through a complete reorganization into a military establishment centered around regiments in coordination with the changing conditions in the region from the reign of Emperor Renzong on and 2) the formation of the jianbing system in the Hebei region and southeast circuits was influenced by the new Shanxi military establishment, in the midst of the tense foreign situation which began developing in the 7 th year of Shenzong's reign (1074). Furthermore, the jianbing system that arose in each region throughout the Northern Song empire reflected differing situations vis-a-vis such foreign entities as the Xixia, Liao 遼 and Dayue 大越. The author concludes that the jianbing system of the Northern Song Dynasty was by no means a uniform, homogeneous military institution, but was rather formed within the processes by which such regions as Shanxi, Hebei and the southeast circuits responded to the nature of differing foreign threats. Shanxi, in particular, which experienced frequent military clashes with the Xixia, became the Northern Song's innovator in military organization, influencing the systems that would develop in Hebei and the southeast circuits. In other words, from a military policy standpoint, Shanxi became a point of interconnection in the Dynasty's international posture.

抄録全体を表示

This article deals with the issue of taxes and corvee duties imposed on the Song-Liao borderland people. The border area was governed by both the Song and the Liao and its residents were compelled to pay taxes to both administrations. Thus, the region and the people were said to be dual-governed. Dual governance began when the Song finally gave up its plan to conquer the areas to its north and when the Kitan started attacking the Song and collecting taxes in the borderlands. The Song exempted people in the borderlands from most tax duties, but later re-imposed miscellaneous taxes in order to retain its position as the official ruler of the region. Before and after signing the Chanyuan Treaty in 1004, residents of the dual-governed regions paid miscellaneous taxes and served corvee duties for the Song, and, at the same time, paid taxes and served corvee labor for the Kitan. Each country needed to impose a tax and labor burden lighter than the other and deliver greater relief than the other. The Song and the Liao took different approaches to riling the borderlands. From the Kitan's position, it was satisfactory enough to have control over and to be able to exploit labor from the region. The Song, on the other hand, took the issue as a matter of territorial integrity.

抄録全体を表示

北宋禁軍が募兵制によったことは周知である。しかし,募兵制の根幹に関わる,軍隊社会を巡る人の流れさえ,なお漠然としている。加えて,宋が軍事大国であったとの認識も乏しい。これまで,「兵士はどこから来るか」についてはある程度考察されてきたが,「兵士はどこへ行くのか」については,剩員・帶甲剩員制,漏澤園を論じた拙論があるにすぎない。また,軍隊の社会的性格も充分に考察されてこなかった。本稿では,旧稿の考察を踏まえ,募兵制を構成する諸制度のうち,陣亡(戦死)をはじめとする死亡,及び負傷・疾病の際の保障など,禁軍兵士の行く末に関わる部分,すなわち禁軍社会の出口部分を考察した。全てではないが,北宋禁軍は,陣亡の際の子弟の採用・遺体の収容・埋葬・慰霊・年金支給以下,負傷者・病死者・疾病者などに各種の手厚い保障があり,「兵士」が生涯を支えうる職業たるべき待遇が墓場に至るまで整えられ,上位の禁軍については終身雇用もなし得る制度を整えていたのである。たとえそれが仮構であったとしても,傭兵の域を越えた近代的常備軍を一部で実現・維持していたと言える。

抄録全体を表示

The chiao-ssu 郊祀 festival is a ceremony to worship 't'ien-ti' 天地 (heaven and earth), performed by the Chinese emperor in the suburb of the capital. This system of chiao-ssu, which was based on the traditional 't'ien-ming' 天命 (heavenly decree) thought, was established during the Han dynasty when Confucianism formed a connection with the state authority, and thereafter was adopted by the successive dynasties. The style of the ceremony have been changed throughout history, according to the characteristics of each dynasty. In the beginning of the Northern Sung period, the T'ang system of chiao-ssu was inherited without change, but the system went through considerable changes in the course of the Northern Sung period. The purpose of this paper is to survey the changes in the system of chiao-ssu during this period. In the system called "K'ai-pao t'ung-li 開宝通礼", which was established immediately after the founding of the dynasty, the T'ang system was adopted without change, but later, the system was changed gradually. For example, by the last years of Jen-tsung 仁宗, the scale of the ceremony was enlarged, and the number of gods worshiped increased, especially in the case where the emperor himself performed the ceremony. In the Shen-tsung era, the restoration of the ancient ceremony was advocated, and consequently the T'ang system was revised completely. Moreover, the large-scale ceremony which had been performed up to the end of the Jen-tsung era was replaced with a more simple one. Since the Che-tsung 哲宗 era, the dispute between Hsin-fa tang 新法党 (the reform party) and Chiu-fa tang 旧法党 (the conservative party) continued to struggle over the reformation in the Shen-tsung era, and the chiao-ssu System, which was closely connected with this dispute, changed according to the alteration of political power.

抄録全体を表示

Chieh-yen (解塩), which is now called Ho-tung-yen (河東塩), was the salt obtained from Yen-chih (塩池) in the south of Shan-hsi Province (山西省). It was because Yen-chih was under the jurisdiction of Chieh-chou (解州) in the Sung age that the salt was called Chieh-yen. Though Yen-chih is only a little salt lake, the output of Chieh-yen in the Sung age amounted to about half of Hai-yen (海塩) which meant the salt produced in all the coastal regions. In this age salt was ordained to be a government monopoly article, and various sorts of salt such as Hai-yen, Chieh-yen, Ching-yen (井塩), etc. were allocated respectively to specific consumption areas. Since Chieh-yen was produced in great quantities, a vast consumption area was set for it between Tsao-pu (曹濮) and Ch'in-feng (秦鳳). In this vast consumption area set for Chieh-yen, however, there were a number of places of production of salt other than Chieh-yen, such as Nu-yen-chih (女塩池) and Five Hsiao-chih (五小池) in the vicinity of Yen-chih, vorious prefectures (州) and districts (県) along the Yellow River (黄河) such as T'ung-chou (同州), and those in a fringe area. The salt produced at these places was not monopolized, and some of them, like T'ung-chou-yen (同州塩) was produced in such a considerable quantities that it was broadly used as private salt side by side with monopolized salt, thus disturbing the monopoly system for Chieh-yen. It is not hard to imagine that such sorts of salt as were produced in small quantities also disturbed the system to some extent even if there is no explicit evidence thereof. This short essay is an attempt to show the actual conditions at various places of salt production in the consumption area of Chieh-yen in the age of Sung, on the basis of scanty evidences in the Sung age and in the light of local records and historical literatures in the ages of Ming (明) and Ch'ing (清). The existence of these places of salt production reveals not only inconsistency of the Chieh-yen Act (解塩法) but also weakness of the Salt Monopoly Act under the reign of the Sung dynasty. It might be said that it clearly indicates the character of both national finance of the Sung dynasty and the Sung dynasty itself, and furthermore the character of the different dynasties in the history of China.

抄録全体を表示

The Tang dynasty, following the systems of the Northern Dynasties, adopted the fang system (坊制) as its urban organization. Particulary in the capital, the system had the function of symbolizing state power, and controlling numerous immigrants. However, during the chaos of late Tang, the system was gradually transformed into a more flexible urban structure of a lot of cities. To be her unify China, the early Sung government adopted a policy to assemble the professional soldiers at the capital. Therefore, by the Taizond era, the number of professional soldiers and their families had inceased to half as large as the total population of Kaifeng. To resolve the resulting disorder caused by this rapid increase in the urban population, soldiers were settled inside barracks surrounded by walls and gates. A large number of barracks in Kaifang occupied the city, and also functioned to symbolize state power. The Sung dynasty's policy of assembling professional soldiers at the capital seemed to have a similar purpose concerning various kinds of immigrants and it seems that in Kaifeng barracks played the same role as the Fang system. On the other hand, the urban districts outside the barracks were not restricted, but the people were not allowed to move around with complete freedom, either. Following the Tang custom, the curfew was on the move there. However, though the Tang curfew was between the first geng (更) and half-past the fifth geng, that of the Sung began at the third geng. As described above, in Kaifeng, where the Fang system had collapsed, it was actually impossible for the Fang-walls (fang-qiang 坊牆) and Fang gate (fang-men 坊門) to stand for the curfew, for Xun-pu (巡鋪) soldiers patrolled to enforce it. Earlier, soldiers of the Imperial Armies (jin-jun 禁軍) were assigned to xun-pu duty. However from the Renzong era, the Imperial Armies had appafently lost their discipline. In the Shenzong era, Wan Anshi (王安石) introduced the Bao-jia (保甲) system for the improvement of the qualities of soldiers. The Bao-jia soldiers were assigned to xun-pu duty and the curfew was still strictly observed, but, soon after that this new system was abolished. Consequently, the Xun-pu police force deteriorated and the public order of Kaifeng was disturbed. The prosperity of the all-night market described in "Dong-jing menghua-lu" (東京夢華録) might be proof of such a breakdown of the public order in Kaifeng in the late Northern Sung. The urban space of Kaifeng can therefore be divided into two spaces: "closed space" and "open space". This originated from the military system of the Sung dynasty, which distinguished professional soldiers from the general public.

抄録全体を表示