The French military assistance advisory, which visited Japan in 1867, placed emphasis on “development of the body” as basic training for soldiers, and actually gave instructions for this purpose. The textbook used for this instruction had never been identified, but as a result of reviewing Mokuba no Sho (“the book of the wooden horse”, published around 1867) written by Hayashi Shojuro (1824–1896), their interpreter, it was found that this is a translation of the part describing wooden horse exercises in the French manual of army gymnastic exercises, “Instruction pour l'enseignement de la gymnastique”, which was the gymnastics textbook brought to Japan by the French military delegation. In addition to the 200-page text, a total of 18 pages of figures illustrating 33 pieces of gymnastic apparatus and exercises using them, and a plan of an outdoor apparatus gymnastics field with apparatus for 200 to 300 people are attached.
The “Instruction” continued to be studied mainly by the army. On the other hand, the Ministry of Education established the taiso denshu jo (Physical Training Institute) in 1878, and invited the American medical doctor, George Adams Leland (1850–1924), to conduct research there. Through his study, the Ministry of Education selected light gymnastics as the most suitable method for the Japanese school physical education system, and it became popular nationwide around 1885 as alumni of the Physical Training Institute spread throughout Japan.
In 1883, however, the Ministry of Education instructed the implementation of hohei soren (infantry training) and heishiki taiso (military exercises) for secondary schools in addition to the normal gymnastics. This marks the introduction of the French gymnastics, employed by the army, into school physical education.
As we can see, the French military assistance advisory's visit to Japan at the end of the Edo Period and the “Instruction” they brought with them, were quickly followed by the establishment of the Japanese army gymnastics system. Along with the implementation of infantry training and military exercises around 1885, it also left clear traces in the formulation of the modern Japanese physical education system.

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The purpose of this paper is to investigate Hayashi Shojuro's seldom explored translation, "Mokuba no Sho" (The Book of Wooden Horse) and its publishing history, and to determine its meaning for the modern physical education in Japan. "Mokuba no Sho" is more of a book on horse vaulting than simply a book on horse riding because of its description of the five kinds of exercises from the back of the horse and twelve exercises from the side of horse. The contents of this book are in complete agreement and comspicious similarity to the French Army's textbook on gymnastics instruction "Ministere de la guerre (1st Ed. 1847) :Instruction pour l'enseignement de la gymnastique". Therefore, it is unquestionable that "Mokuba no Sho" was translated from it. Hayashi Shojuro (1824-1896, formerly a professer of French at Kaiseisho, National Academic Institute) was one of the most famous scholars at the end age of the Edo period.From December 1866 to the early spring of 1868, he also held an additional post as the official French translator for the Japanese Army in the cavalry, artillery and infantry divisions. This was necessary because the Tokugawa Shogunate employed a party of military advisers from France, whose leader was Captain Chanoine. Even though the translation of "Mokuba no Sho" is not clearly dated, it can be presumed that it was prepared in 1867 because of Hayashi's occupation as a translator for the party of French Military advisers and his subsequent military service for the Tokugawa Shogunate in the Boshin civil war from early 1868. It is well known fact that the party of French military adviser seriously considered basic gymnastics as necessary for soldier training, and taught Japanese soldiers how to do gymnastics (rentaiho). Furthermore, in the memorial presented to shogunate in 1867 (The Chanoine Memorial), it is clearly written that the party had brought with them a fully illustrated book on gymnastics. Initially Hayashi Shojuro read the book as the official translator. He took particular notice of the section on horse vaulting as training for the cavalry and subsequently translated it into Japanese. The historical meanings of this book for physical education in modern Japan are as follows : 1. It is the oldest book dealing with the physical education of the west. 2. This is a memorable book in the history of Japanese physical education because it was the first academic study based on an original foreign text, "Ministere de lA guerre (1st Ed.1847) : Instruction pour l'enseignement de la gymnastique." 3. During the first half of the Meiji period French gymnastics were for the most part by the military. For example, "Taiso Kyohan" (Textbook of Gymnastics) was written by the military, modeled after the French version. It was later applied to physical education in Japan's middle school System. "Mokuba no Sho" was the first book in the history on French gymnastics in the Meiji period. 4. This is the first book in which the scientific term of the study of physical education as "shintai undo gaku" (science of physical movement) was used. 5. This book shows us that the apparatus of gymnastics in Japan was derived from the French military gymnastics, especially horse vaulting for the training of the cavalry. Above all, "Mokuba no Sho" is memorable as the book which introduced modern European physical education to Japan.

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1999年（平成11年）改訂の小・中・高等学校の体育・保健体育の学習指導要領1）2）3）では，「集団行動の指導は，運動の特性との関連において適切に行う」こととしている．すなわち，集団行動の時間を特別に設けて指導するのではなく，各運動領域の運動の特性に応じて適切に指導するとか，あるいは特別活動の学校行事等の機会に集団指導を行うこととしている． 　学校における集団行動とは，集合，整とん，列の増減などの行動をいい，その行動の仕方は色々な機会をとらえて指導しようとするものである． 　児童生徒の集団を集合させたら，先ず最初に発する号令は「気をつけ」であり，「気をつけ」の姿勢を指導するであろう．一方，社会人になって「気をつけ」の号令を受けることは全く無いといってよい．しかしながら学校において教師は，極めて普通に，何の戸惑いや抵抗もなく「気をつけ」という号令を発し，児童生徒はその号令を受けている． 　この度，日本における「気をつけ」号令と「気をつけ」姿勢にこだわって，その歴史を若干の資料からたどってみたいと思う．

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During negotiations over the twenty-one demands in put to China, Britain had more interest in China than America. However, the attitude of Britain's Minister of Foreign Affairs, Sir Edward Grey, towards Japan was very passive and one of extreme caution, since he wanted to avoid any breach with the Japanese. Therefore, he did not give the Chinese any hint of support. However, Grey proposed that Japan should refrain from advancing any demands that could be considered to compromise the integrity or independence of China as it would be hard to "reconcile such demands with the terms of the Alliance" But, Grey's cautious approach was ignored by Foreign Minister Takaaki Kato. Kato's adopted such an aggressive stance despite the opposition of the Genro (the Emperor's supreme adviser), politicians in the Diet, the press, and a combination of militaristic pressure and nationalist opinion. Although Kato needed Britain as an ally during the negotiations with China, Grey's telegram of warning did not put any pressure on him and his attitude did not change. One of the aims of this paper is to add some background to the reason why from a military point of view. Kato continued such a strong and agressive attitude towards Britain. At this time, Britain was in a desperate position given the threat of a German breakthrough on the Western Front, while the Central powers were forcing a Russian retreat in the east. At this crucial stage in the war, the Japanese navy continued to render valuable assistance in the search of German ships, in the protection of trade, in the convoy of troops, and in helping the allies with material assistance in the conduct of the war by supplying arms and ammunition. Under such military circumstances, Japanese assistance was essential to British success, so it was desirable not to antagonize Japan. This paper's second view point concerns the influence of the Japanese Naval assistance in violatating the Indian garrison of Singapore, and Kato's "psychological moment" in convection with this incident. Prior to the twenty-one demands and the violation of the Indian Garrison of Singapore, there was already tremendous friction between Kato and Grey. Kato was annoyed at Grey attempt to place strict limits on Japanese military and naval operations in China and the Pacific. Furthermore, Grey proposed that Japan be controlled by a combined French, Russian and British operation. Kato was able to reject Britain's proposals because of Britain's precarious situation in the war. Britain had to change herself geographically for Japan, because of a desperate situation. Britain had to request the dispatch of a cruiser to North America, another three weeks later for the Indian Ocean, and still another one month later for the Dardanelles. Britain's weak position at the time goes some way towards explaining "the bulldozer tactics" of Kato. During this critical situation, the violation of the Indian Garrison of Singapore occurred and negotiations over the twenty-one demands began. The Navy sent the cruisers Tushima and Otowa to Singapore and rendered "Admirable and effective" assistance. Because of the Japanese assistance of arms and ammunitions, protecting convoys and chasing German merchant cruisers, Grey sent seven telegrams of appreciation for the Japanese assistances. Further, he acknowledged in three telegrams the dispatch of the cruiser Ibuki for convoy escort, three cruisers for the American Squadron chasing the German Far-East Squadron, and for the rescue operation of a merchant ship in the Indian Ocean. Such a continuous stream of telegrams must have provided Kato's "psychological moment" support for his agressive attitude toward Britain. Further, the weakness shown when Britain had to kill 50 Indian soldiers in her own colony gave Kato confidence to maintain his diplomatic

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ナミブ砂漠の厳しい自然とたくましい人びとの暮らし―ナミビアフィールドスクール報告―

水野　一晴

　

タイ・フィールドスクールの概要

片岡　　樹

　

トルコの神秘主義教団を訪ねて―あるムスリムたちの宗教実践―

西山　愛実

　

安定化の進む国境地帯―ワンカー陣地からココ村へ―

佐々木　研

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The purpose of this study was to investigate how physical education was introduced into schools supplying pupils fbr the University of Tokyo and how it was developed at those schools. The fundamental sources for the study were documents among historical materials detailing the history of the Imperial University of Tokyo and among the archives of the University of Tokyo. The findings were as follows : 1) Nanko asked the Ministry of Education to construct a playground in September 1871, and this was constructed in the following year. The Emperor Meiji visited Nanko on May 6, 1872 and viewed the playground, and Nanko seems to have had gymnastic apparatus used for the French system of military gymnastics. 2) The timetable of each class at Nanko included gymnastics for 30 minutes from 9 a.m. to 9 : 30 a.m. every day, and furthermore Nanko recommended students to do other exercises and walking as extracurricular activities. Most gym teachers employed had once worked for the Primary School attached to Numazu Military Academy. They seem to have studied the French system of military gymnastics in the late Edo period. A gymnastics system similar to that of the French at the Attached School had been practiced at Nanko. 3) Although gymnastics was a supplementary subject at Kaiseigakko, and later at Tokyo Kaiseigakko, they placed stress on it and in fact regulated the timetables so that most courses had 30 minutes of gymnastics from 9 : 30 a.m. to 10 : 00 a.m. every day and students took gymnastic exercises under the direction of the gym teacher. At the same time provision was also made for students to wear European clothes and shoes, which were thought to be more convenient for gym and other classes. 4) The construcion of new school buildings at Kaiseigakko in August 1873 included a new playground with exercise apparatus. Judging from the blueprint, the apparatus was evidently that of the French system of military gymnastics, and designed by a person whose knowledge excelled that in textbooks of the French system : 'Shinpei-taijyutu-kyoren'. 5) The exercises displayed under the direction of the gym teachers Y. Kariya, S. Takino and K. Fukushima in the presence of the Emperor, who attended the opening ceremony at Kaiseigakko on October 9, 1873, were ko-hi (leaping), tesuri (parallel bars) and yagura (platform). 6) The discharge of gym teachers at Tokyo Kaiseigakko between January and Feburary 1877 indicated that this preceded the measure that students taking the preparatory course for the University of Tokyo, established by consolidation of Tokyo Kaiseigakko and Tokyo Igakko, were to be taught gymnastics by Taiso-denshujyo (the National Normal School of Gymnastics). 7) Kaiseigakko and Tokyo Kaiseigakko played the role of translating and publishing book about gymnastics, manufacturing gymnastic instruments such as a dumbbells, and repairing sporting goods such as rubber balls. The traditional function introducing Western Culture since the Shogunate Institute of Foreign Studies such as Tenmonnkata, Banshowagegoyoh, Yogakusho and Bansho Shirabesho could not help being expanded in the above schools so far as modern industries had scarcely developed. 8) Gymnastics was also a supplementary subject at Dai-ichi Daigakku Igakko. When it was going to construct a playground and exercise apparatus, Dai-ichiban Chugaku (formerly Nanko) helped it and allowed some staff members of Dai-ichi Daigakku Igakko to inspect the playground and apparatus at Dai-ichiban Chugaku and lent them the blueprint. Igakko (formerly Dai-ichi Daigakku Igakko) had gym teachers concurrently holding similar positions at Kaiseigakko. Thus the successors of Nanko which had been pioneers in introducing gymnastics into modern schools in Japan had often helped those of Tohko (the Medical School).

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