In India, since ancient times Tri-phala (meaning three fruits in Sanskrit) has been considered to be a combination of the following fruits: -Haritaki (Terminalia chebula, Retz.), Amalaka (Embelica officinalis Gaertn), and Vibhitaka (Terminalia belerica Roxb.). These plants are also listed in the Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India. Haritaki and Amalaka have also been used for medicinal purposes since ancient times in Japan under the Japanese names of Kariroku and Annmaroku, respectively. Both have been carefully preserved as treasured drugs in the nationally important Shosoin treasure storehouse. This study attempts to clarify the description of Tri-phala in the Navanitaka, which is the second part of the Bower Manuscript (Bower Ms.), and examines the reasons why these plants were combined. This paper begins with a summary description of Tri-phala in the context of traditional Asian medicine, followed by the delineation of drug selection principles in Ayurveda. Tri-phala formulas in the N?van?taka are then examined. The Carakasamhita (CS) treats Tri-phala as a purifier and tonic (rasayana), describing it as a formula for rejuvenation and longevity. On the other hand, the Susrutasamhita (SS) regards Tri-phala as having the efficacy of balancing kapha (phlegm) and pitta (bile), and also as being a medicine to promote excretion and enhance digestive functions for better nutritional intake. It is described to have an effect of curing diseases by keeping the tridhau (theree element) valance. Tri-phala is thus used as an ingredient of laxatives for diseases that result from kapha imbalance and tonic. The Astangahrdayasamhita (AHS) considers Tri-phala to have a particular superiority among cure-all medicines with the power to dispel illness. It controls kapha and overcomes blood diseases. Tri-phala formulas found in the Navanitaka were prescribed for the treatment of abdominal tumors induced by vayu (wind) disorder as well as for coughs caused by pitta and kapha disorder. Tri-phala was also administered to facilitate nutrient absorption, regulate bowel function, and promote excretion. Tri-phala thus restores the balance of tridhau by facilitating water distribution in the body. For these reasons, the optimal combination of Tri-phala was then established to adjust kapha for most efficient purification effects. PMID: 26427099 [Indexed for MEDLINE]

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Dignāga claims that the semantic theory of “something having a universal” (jātimat) cannot explain co-referential expressions such as “existent pot” (san ghaṭaḥ), because in this theory the word “existent” does not include (vyāpti) or imply (ākṣepa) a pot. Dignāga’s own theory of “something having exclusion” (apohavat), on the other hand, can explain it, because given his presuppositions the word “existent” does include and imply a pot. The former theory presupposes “strong” connections between words and meanings. Only something existent (sat) is positively (anvayadvāreṇa) connected with the word “existent.” Therefore, a pot is not connected with the word “existent.” The latter theory, on the other hand, presupposes “weak” connections learned through co-absence (vyatireka): The word “existent” has never been seen applied to something which is not existent. The meaning of “existent” is whatever remains after excluding non-existent things. In this negative learning a pot is not excluded (anapohana, apratikṣepa). Therefore, the co-referential expression “existent pot” (or “a pot is existent”) is justified. This is also due to the characteristic feature of exclusion (apoha) which is precisely non-existent (abhāva) and a non-entity (adravya). Exclusion does not intervene (vyavadhāna) between words and their meanings. The word “existent” can directly mean (sākṣādvṛtti) something existent without exclusion intervening. Thus, the theory of apohavat has no fault of dependency (pāratantrya) which the jātimat theory has. In the latter theory a real universal such as existence (sattā) intervenes between the word “existent” and its meaning, i.e., something existent.

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The ‘Vastra-haraṇa’ （Kṛṣṇa’s stealing clothes） motif in the Bhāgavata-purāṇa （10th century, in south India） must have pertained to the Paiśācī sentences（1st century BC）quoted by Bhoja （11th century） in his Śṛiṅgāraprakāśa and can be traced back to the Vedic “Purūravas and Urvasī story,” which is considered the global origin of the swan-maiden motif （that is, stealing clothes motif） in tales of marriage between a human and a nonhuman being. According to the ‘ākhyāna theory,’ we can observe that the authors adopted such a motif from vernacular folktales into the sacred Sanskrit books.

In some Buddhist texts, four kinds of lotus flowers in the pools in paradise have been depicted with their indigenous flora names; utpala-, kumuda-, padma- and puṇḍarīka-. However, in the Smaller Sukhāvatīvyūha, they are depicted with the adjectives blue, yellow, red and white. After confirming that kavi-samaya （poetical convention contrary to real-life experience） is for drawing the supernatural world, we conclude that the author of this sacred work might have tried to equate the four color’s adjectives with Śūdra, Vaiśya, Kṣatriya and Brāhmaṇa in the caste （varṇa） system, based on the methods of kavi-samaya.

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