What is the criterion of good and brought forth endless controvercies in the Islamic ethics between the rationalists and the conservative groups; the former insisted that it could be known through the human reason, and the latter confined the authoritative criterion only to the revelation and its derivatives. The rationalists, the Mu'tazilah, maintain that the good and is inherent in the nature of the act itself and can be understood by the reason. For them the criterion of good and must be intrinsic and objective.
Based on this traditional Mu'tazilite ethical principles, 'Abd al Jabbar, who is a great scholar belonging to the later Mu'tazilah, elaborated his own ethics. He brought situational and prudential perspective into the judgment of ethical good-, taking into account various aspects and levels of the actual acts.
“Benefit”, one of the key terms in his ethics, is always correlated to Good, while “Injury” is to . An act is good when it brings forth “Benefit” or when it defends Injury. Since the criterion of Good and is put on the balance of “Benefit” and “Injury”, “Injury” which “Benefit” exceeds is judged as Good. All these prudential judgments can be rightly grasped by man's reason. However, as ethics must be always valid, 'Abd al Jabbar states that “Benefit” must not be of worldly selfish profits, nor should be gained by wrong means.
To consider the whole aspects of his ethics together, he seems to conceive a qualitative hierarchy of Benefit, of which the highest is the creation of God itself; “Benefit” not in a prudential nor rational sense, but in a eschatological sense. In the side of man, “Benefit” in the ultimate sense will be realized in the hereafter in accordance with what he has done in this world.
In this sphere “Benefit” has both the rational and eschatological meaning in 'Abd al Jabbar's ethics, even though it has situational and prudential aspects. The study of the whole relevance of these aspects is my next task.

抄録全体を表示

A situationist perspective on the causes of anti-social behavior by individuals and violence sanctioned by nations is illustrated through experimental research and social-historical analyses in which "ordinary," good men and women are induced into behaving in ways. This social psychological view is contrasted with the more traditional dispositional focus on the internal, or personality-based, causes of anti-social behavior. The research foundation of this article demonstrates the Lewinian principle that it is possible to investigate social phenomena vital in the "real world" using experimental procedures. The presentation features my laboratory and field studies on deindividuation, aggression, vandalism, and the Stanford Prison Experiment, along with a process analysis of Milgram's obedience studies, and Bandura's analysis of Moral Disengagement. This body of research demonstrates the under-recognized power of social situations to alter the mental representations and behavior of individuals, groups and nations. The immediate context for this talk will be the current epidemic of violence in the U.S. My paper is an elaboration of the slide-based lecturegiven to the Society of Japanese Social Psychology in Osaka, 1994.

抄録全体を表示

It is well known that the sykophantai did various kinds of in ancient Athens. In Aristophanic plays, too, they are called men without exception. The greatest reason why they are lies, as J. O. Lofberg, V. Ehrenberg, Bonner and Smith say, in their extortion of money by levying blackmail upon ordinary citizens for their personal profits. Under the system of free lawsuit they relentlessly brought charges against even those persons suspected of a slight violation of law, and represented themselves as men serviceable to the state and citizens. Their livelihood came from such a "patriotic" action. The law courts were where they could make a living. At the same time by threats of accusation and blackmail they extorted much more financial interest from ordinary citizens, who wanted no accusation, than they could earn from the popular court. Their excessive activity in the courts made ordinary citizens frightened. As long as they legitimately utilized the courts, it was difficult to draw a sharp line between them and the plaintiffs of ordinary citizens. If this can be distinguished, it was only by the difference of their motives(Lofberg) ; sycophants brought γραφαι for their private interest and the others for public profits. For Aristophanes, however, I am of the opinion that the target of his attack against sycophants is not their motives, but their excessive thought and behavior. He does not think that sycophantic evils are peculiar to sycophants alone; the elements of their are, in practice, found in the state, citizens and even impersonal "war"; on the stage the characteristics of of the state are represented by the threat of political leaders and those of the citizens by their flattery. They are the characters and things in which the idea of Aristophanes had was embodied. In sycophants the idea of the of excessiveness or arrogance was characterized. The Aristophanes represents on the stage is not always proper to someone in actuality. Cleon in reality, for instance, is a politician who, for Aristophanes, is to be blamed, but Cleon in his drama is not real. He is represented as Paphlagon or a servant, and Philocleon, a citizen fond of lawsuits, may also be regarded as a part of Cleon. Furthermore the of the sycophant is overlapping in these characters. Sycophantic is usually common to other persons in his plays. The cause of their may have lain in the democratic system of freelitigation and in "defects in the general political conditions" (Ehrenberg) , but on the same ground as that, Aristophanes never censures them. He seems to realize that their does not come out of the defects in the social system, but out of insolence deeply rooted in the mind. Accordingly he tries to have them awake to their own humanity rather than to reform the social system of Athens. This is testified by the good evidence that he attacks the sycophants in a furious tone, but at the some time he always urges them to reform their behavior in humane language.

抄録全体を表示

Social anthropologists working in Sub-Saharan Africa have paid little attention tothe -eye belief compared to witchcraft or the spirits of the dead, and its descriptionis fragmentary. This is related to the peripheral or minor part played by the eye aswell as the primacy of other causes of misfortune in social life. This article highlightsseveral aspects of the belief and the practices of the eye among the Gusii ofsouthwestern Kenya, such as: methods of the eye, their effects, their treatments, symbolic features of the belief, and social relationships between -eyed persons andtheir victims.
Ethnic groups referred to here for comparative analysis include the Teso, the Luo, the Kipsigis, and the Logoli in Kenya, and the Nuer in Sudan. Despite manydivergences, the -eye belief in these societies is shown to have several significantfeatures in common. -eyed people are not held personally responsible for anydamage caused by their eye. Damage caused by the eye is generally much lessserious and infrequent compared to other supernatural causes of misfortune. -eyed people and their victims are, in most cases, not related in terms of kinship, residence or economic interest. These features are compared and contrasted withthose of witchcraft belief.

抄録全体を表示

This article is intended to analyse the part of the dispute between Thrasymachus and Socrates in Book A of "Republic", in relation to the preceding part of the book, i e Polemarchus' definition of "justice" and Socrates' criticism of it Polemarchus defines "justice" as "to do good to the friends and to do to the enemies" This principle of the right action is composed of two rules, opposite to each other and applied in each case to only one of the two groups of men Socrates, in his criticism, expelling "to do " from "justice" and extending over the whole the rule applied to the friends by Polemarchus, seems to suggest "to do good (to everybody)" as the general principle, advocating, as it were, the cause of "justice" On the contrary, Thrasymachus recommends "to do to others", i e "injustice" as the punciple, applying to everyone except oneself the rule that Polemarchus has done to one's enemies only In Thrasymachus' view, "to do to others" is one's own good (as it were, justice, δικαιον), while "to be righteous" is another one's (i e the stronger man's) good and one's own From Socrates' standpoint again, if we might infer so, "to do to others" is the gravest to oneself, and despite his unerring skill in the art of , an unjust man is in the grandest error in mistaking it for a good and is possessed of grossest ignorance, and he is less strong and more unfortunate in the true sense than a righteous man The problem of justice is, on the other hand, treated by Thrasymachus in relation to the law and the ruler who makes it, and thus is given a public meaning (not only a private one) in the whole state or community But the two disputants differ diametrically from each other as to what the ruler and his τεχνη essentially consist in Throughout the whole of their dispute, Socrates appears to be triumphant, but we should rather think that the question is, in reality, of the difference of standpoint between Socrates, who thinks a man always does good when he knows good and and who considers the whole community to be a world all composed of brothers, and Thrasymachus, who again regards the society as a battlefield where everyone fights with others for his own good, which is nothing but another's When refuting Thrasymachus, however, Socrates is found showing in the sharpest contrast his own views and their implications, by means of treating from his own point of view the problems presented by his opponent

抄録全体を表示

The idea of “

People 悪人 as the Right Object 正機” is seen as a representative of Shinran’s 親鸞 （1173-1262） thought. There is a view that this idea was advocated not only by Shinran, but also by the Pure Land Buddhism that preceded him. Some believe that this theory is the same as the idea of “ People as the Right Object,” based on the doctrine that it is the ordinary person 凡夫 who is the center of salvation. However, there are two kinds of ordinary people, good ordinary people and ordinary people - ordinary people are not by nature. Recognizing this, Shōkū 證空 （1177-1247） and Hōnen’s 法然 （1133-1212） direct disciples taught the idea of “ Ordinary People 悪凡夫 as the Right Object.” In this essay, I reexamined the problem of “ People as the Right Object” from the viewpoint of “ Ordinary People as the Right Object.”

抄録全体を表示

What is and where does it come from? Augustine is much concerned with the problem of origin of . Manicheism teaches that there are two principles, good and , from the beginning. This world is the fighting place of these two principles. Good principle makes a man do good and principle does the opposite. Man does good or by compulsion of these principles, so cannot expect to establish his personality through his actions by free choice of his will.
Afterwards he reads some books of Neo-Platonism and learns that is not substance but privation of good. All that exists is good, and as we call defect of light a darkness, so is defect or privation of good, that is, non-existence. There is no in this world God has created. But there is one which is in man, that is sin or iniquity. This sin is by free choice of man’s will. We cannot find any other origin of sin except man’s free will. This is a crucial point of Manichean controversy.
In the “On Free Choice of the Will” Evodius, a partner of the dialogue, raises a serious question. Why did God give a man free will which chooses , that is, commits a sin? For what is a free will necessary? This leads us the most fundamental question, why a man needs to be free. Augustine replies that a man needs a free choice in order to live rightly and we cannot find other reason of sin except man’ s free will itself. Free will itself is good, and sin is a perversion of the will. A sinful will cannot choose good. Man must live rightly or well and choose good by his free choice because a good cannot be forced. Why must a man be free? He must be free to live rightly. Why does a man choose though all man wants to live well? Augustine says he does not know. Does he give up a problem? Freedom means that a will has the origin or cause of its movement. It is known through a consciousness of sin which is negative of freedom, as can be understood through negativeness of good.

抄録全体を表示

This paper is a critical analysis of the rapid changes that have been taking place within the Sawau community on the Island of Beqa, Fiji, over the past ten years. The Fijian firewalking ceremony (vilavilairevo) traditionally performed only by members of the Sawau people is a prime example of a propitiation ritual that has become commodified to suit the requirements of tourism. More recently, the reproduction of tradition among the Sawau and their vilavilairevo practice is causing an unprecedented dogmatic schism between Fiji’s Methodist Church and two Pentecostal churches. Over the last two centuries, the “gift” of firewalking has transmuted itself into a sociocultural tool that has consistently indigenized the power of the foreign, allowing its custodians to locally sustain their community and to gain a reach and respect across the nation and beyond. To disentangle the intertwined topics of tradition and change on the Island of Beqa, and understand whose cultural views and values are being privileged or debased, this paper pays close attention to the Christian cultural dynamics and social tensions surrounding the vilavilairevo created by a denominational opposition swiftly reshaping local notions of heritage, social sentiment, and social capital.

抄録全体を表示

　セキュリティ要求を含めた仕様化を行なうことで，ソフトウェアの脆弱性に対してセキュリティを保証することができると考えられる．シナリオを用いた要求獲得によって，具体的な攻撃手段への対応方法をステイクホルダ間で明確にすることができる．さらに，攻撃手段と対応を記述したシナリオはテストにも利用可能である．だが，シナリオの記述者は正常処理に関するシナリオは記述できても，セキュリティ要求に関して網羅的なシナリオを記述することは困難である．　本研究では悪意あるアクタを仮定し，このアクタが振舞うシナリオを例外シナリオとして自動的に生成し，正常シナリオに付加すことによってセキュリティを保証する方法を提案する．アクタはシナリオにおいてシステムとデータのやりとりを行うが，悪意あるアクタはそのやりとりにおいて典型的な脆弱性およびシステムごとに想定される脆弱性への攻撃を行なうと仮定する．

抄録全体を表示

When we try to examine the problem of in Melville, we must go into the Puritan mind. The Puritans of the 17th century saw the phenomenal world as the battle ground where the angelic force fought the Satanic. They believed in God's final victory. But to their mind, Satan's power appeared to be so overwhelming that they often saw prevailing over the world. Melville rejected the fearful Almighty who ruled the Puritan mind, but he was as obsessed by the problem of as was the Puritans. Just as Transcendentalists read the symbolic meanings in nature, Melville in his works often gave a symbolic value to the visible world. But Emerson's Transcendentalism was not Melville's lodestar. To Transcendentalists, the creator and the created are in perfect harmony. Melville, who sees the world as the infested place, flatly turns down the optimistic transcendentalism and the 19th-century protestantism that almost deified man. Moby Dick's oceanic world appears to be -infested, but it also shows a benign smile. In Moby-Dick and in Pierre we see as it co-exists with good; or rather, we see and good as two aspects of one entity. Northrop Frye maintains that the leviathan is an archetypal image of Satan. Melville's White Whale is indeed an monster as Ahab sees it to be. But it also represents such qualities that suggest the good. A careful examination into the fire image in the book also helps us here. The eery St. Elmo's fire that burns silently on top of the three masts of the Pequod seems devilish enough to the frightened crew. It, however, can be looked at as an serious warning given to Ahab from above as he tries to satisfy his monomaniac and indeed Satanic desire. Thus, the fire image in this book shows Melville's conscious effort to produce ambivalence. Dark-haired Isabel in Pierre also represents ambiguity of good and . And Plotinus Plinlimmon's double-perspective, ("Chronometricals" and "Horologicals") is what Pierre lacks as he tries to right the wrong of the world. Plinlimmon's pamphlet suggests the ambiguous condition on which man has to maintain his moral balance. The tragic view of life appears to be almost identical with the biblical on the basis that they both acknowledge the existence and the power of . But the biblical view of life does not see good and in the sense of ambiguity. According to the Bible they are two different and individual entities, though they seem to co-exist and are inseparably entangled with each other. This is where the biblical view turns sharply away from the Melvillian concept of tragic ambiguity. Melville's The Confidence-Man, a satire on the sinfulness and the folly of human nature, is closer to the biblical view than any of the previous works of this author, for Melville's satire can be taken as a warning against the credulity of man. No tragic hero appears in this book, nor does show itself as an ambiguous being. is clearly personified in this work as a Protean swindler.

抄録全体を表示

With the development of wireless network technology and popularization of mobile devices, the Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) has become an indispensable part of our daily life. Although the 802.11-based WLAN provides enormous convenience for users to access the Internet, it also gives rise to a number of security issues. One of the most severe threat encountered by Wi-Fi users is the

twin attacks. The twin, a kind of rogue access points (RAPs), masquerades as a legitimate access point (AP) to lure users to connect it. Due to the characteristics of strong concealment, high confusion, great harmfulness and easy implementation, the twin has led to significant loss of sensitive information and become one of the most prominent security threats in recent years. In this paper, we propose a passive client-based detection solution that enables users to independently identify and locate twins without any assistance from a wireless network administrator. Because of the forwarding behavior of twins, proposed method compares 802.11 data frames sent by target APs to users to determine twin attacks. We implemented our detection technique in a Python tool named ET-spotter. Through implementation and evaluation in our study, our algorithm achieves 96% accuracy in distinguishing twins from legitimate APs.

抄録全体を表示

This paper is concered with verses in which causes and conditions are concretely discussed. In these verses, good and kamma are expounded in contradistinction to each other. I want to throw light on the Dhammapada's characteristic understanding of ‘’ and ‘good,’ and their close connection to mind (cetana).

抄録全体を表示

The three

destinies are elements of the overall scheme of the five destinies. The world in Abhidharma literature is described by them and by the three realms, but their origin is unclear. This paper examines the earliest passage about the three destinies in the Dharmaskandha. As a result, the following four points were identified. First, the earliest reference to the three destinies in the Dharmaskandha is identified in a citation of the Āgama that mentions the four avetyaprasāda 四證浄. Second, this reference includes the passege “to expound this hell, this animal realm, this realm of hungry ghosts, this dangerous, this destiny and this fall.” Furthermore, they are referred to in terms of practice, not in terms of the three realms and five destinies, and may be interpreted in connection with the stream-enterer （śrotāpanna）. Finally, the passage “dangerous, this destiny and this fall 嶮惡趣坑” is quoted in the Jñānaprasthāna and interpreted in the Abhidharmamahāvibhāṣa. But there are many interpretations. Hence it can be assumed that there was no fixed interpretation.

抄録全体を表示

Ancient Egyptian ‘Letters to the Dead’, addressed to the deceased by the member of the bereaved family, are very important materials showing the image that Ancient Egyptians called up concerning the dead.
The aim of this paper is to show such an image of the dead, considering the character of the dead in the letters to the dead which belong to the period from the Sixth to the Twentieth Dynasty.
The letter was written mostly for asking the addressee, the deceased, to help the member of the bereaved family, including the addresser, being suffered from some trouble, containing sickness, nightmare, and the act by the other living person. These troubles, even the acts of the living, were attributed to the malice of the dead, and the addressees were asked to fight, or to report to the court in the Netherworld against the dead. In some letters, the addresser even half-threatened the addressee with the stop of the funerary service in order to make him/her help his/her family on the earth.
The addressee could also be regarded as the culprit being responsible of the trouble of his/her bereaved family. In that case, the addressee was blamed, and even threatened by the addresser.
In any case, the dead in ‘Letters to the Dead’, including the addressee, were used one-sidedly by the living to explain various troubles on the earth, or to acquire their solutions or compensations.

抄録全体を表示