Making Learning Outcomes Visible

Abstract

　The purpose of this paper is to review recent research trends within the broad theme of “making learning outcomes visible” and to present the most pertinent issues in an organized form. First, we define the learning outcomes from three perspectives: （a）intended and achieved; （b）direct and indirect; （c）cross-institutional, institutional, program, and course levels. On the basis of the conceptual multiplicity of learning outcomes, we have classified the methods and tools used to make learning outcomes visible into four types grouped along two axes, direct and indirect assessments as well as quantitative and qualitative assessments, and clarify the characteristics of each type. Furthermore, by means of a value-added analysis of the quality of education and a meta-analysis of increasing the visibility of effective teaching, we give specific illustrations of how “second-order visibility” is generated by application of the concept of making learning outcomes visible. Finally, we point out four potential risks which are inseparably inherent in our study theme: the reduction of learning outcomes to quantifiable aspects only, the erosion of goals by assessments, a loss of diversity, and a heavy assessment load.