Abstract
Aim: The relationship between carotid artery ultrasound findings and clinical outcomes in patients who undergo percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has not been completely elucidated.
Methods: This single-center retrospective study investigated 691 patients who underwent PCI and carotid ultrasound testing. Maximum carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) was defined as the greatest CIMT at the maximally thick point among the common carotid artery, carotid bulb, and internal carotid artery. A carotid plaque was defined as vessel wall thickening with a CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm. The characteristics of carotid plaque (heterogeneity, calcification, or irregular/ulcerated surface) were evaluated visually. Patients were divided into those with and without heterogeneous carotid plaque (maximum CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm and heterogeneous texture). The endpoint was the incidence of a major adverse cardiovascular event (MACE) defined as a composite of cardiovascular (CV) death, myocardial infarction, and ischemic stroke.
Results: Among 691 patients, 309 were categorized as having a heterogeneous plaque. Patients with heterogeneous plaques were at a higher risk of MACE than those without (p=0.002). A heterogeneous plaque was independently associated with MACE after adjusting for covariates (hazard ratio [HR], 1.71; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01–2.90; p=0.046). Calcified or irregular/ulcerated plaques were correlated with a higher incidence of MACE, but both were not independently associated with MACE (HR, 1.35; 95% CI, 0.69–2.64, p=0.38 and HR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.57–1.69; p=0.95, respectively).
Conclusion: The presence of a heterogeneous carotid plaque in patients who underwent PCI predicted future CV events. These patients may require more aggressive medical therapy and careful follow-up.
Introduction
The management of coronary artery disease (CAD), including optimal medical therapy and revascularization, has dramatically progressed, and its prognosis has improved in the last few decades1, 2). However, CAD remains a major cause of death worldwide3, 4). To reduce CAD-related mortality rates, the primary prevention of CAD is obviously important; however, the secondary prevention or identification of high-risk subjects among those with established CAD is also essential. To assess atherosclerosis and cardiovascular (CV) disease risks, carotid artery ultrasound is usually performed, and the calculation of carotid intima-media thickness (CIMT) and assessment of carotid plaque height and characteristics are recommended5, 6). Several studies have shown that CIMT or plaque height is a useful surrogate to predict CV events in patients without known CV disease or with intermediate CV disease risk7-10). In addition, heterogeneous plaques are reportedly correlated with plaque instability (e.g. intraplaque hemorrhage or ulceration) and poor clinical outcomes11-13). Thus, carotid artery ultrasound is a well-validated tool for the primary prevention of CAD and is used in clinical practice; however, the correlation between carotid artery ultrasound findings and clinical outcomes in patients with CAD, especially those who undergo percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), has not been completely elucidated. It is important to establish how to apply carotid artery ultrasound results in clinical practice to address secondary prevention in this high-risk cohort. The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between carotid ultrasound findings, including CIMT and plaque characteristics, and CV events in patients with CAD who undergo PCI.
Methods
Patients
This was a single-center observational study. This study was approved by our institutional ethics committee and complied with the Declaration of Helsinki. A total of 691 patients were included in the study. Among patients who underwent PCI at Nagoya University Hospital between 2006 and 2020, those who underwent carotid artery ultrasound around the time of the index PCI were enrolled. Patients with previously implanted carotid artery stents were excluded from the analysis, but those with carotid artery stenosis were included. Their baseline characteristics, medications, laboratory and echocardiographic data, and PCI procedure data were obtained from their medical records. Written informed consent was obtained from all patients.
Carotid Artery Ultrasound
Carotid artery ultrasound testing was conducted according to the recommendations of the American Society of Echocardiography5, 6). Two-dimensional ultrasound was performed by experienced sonographers. The bilateral common carotid artery (CCA), carotid bulbus, and internal carotid artery (ICA) were observed using longitudinal and short-axis planes. CIMT was defined as the distance from the leading edge of the lumen–intima interface to the leading edge of the media–adventitia interface in the far wall and the trailing edge of the lumen–intima interface to the trailing edge of the media–adventitia interface in the near wall.
CIMT was measured at the maximum thickness of the CCA, carotid bulbus, and ICA, and the greatest value was defined as maximum CIMT. Plaque was defined as focal or diffuse vessel wall thickening with a CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm. Maximum CIMT was used for analysis because maximum CIMT or maximum plaque height is reportedly associated with clinical outcomes5, 6). If CIMT was ≥ 1.5 mm, plaque characteristics, including texture (homogeneous or heterogeneous echogenicity), calcification, and surface morphology (smooth, irregular, or ulcerated), were visually evaluated5, 14). Here we especially focused on plaque heterogeneity, and heterogeneous plaque was defined as mixed lesion of hyper- (calcification), iso-, or hypoechoic area. Patients were divided into two groups according to the presence or absence of heterogeneous plaque: those with heterogeneous plaque (maximum CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm and heterogeneous texture) and those without heterogeneous plaque (maximum CIMT ＜1.5 mm or homogenous texture). In patients with multiple plaques, they were classified into the heterogeneous group if they had at least one heterogeneous plaque.
Clinical Outcomes
The endpoint of this study was the incidence of a major adverse cardiac event (MACE) defined as a composite of CV death, myocardial infarction (MI), and ischemic stroke during all follow-up period. CV death was defined as any death of a CV cause, sudden death, or death of unknown cause [15]. MI was defined as the presence of pathological and new Q waves on an electrocardiogram and/or an increase in creatine kinase myocardial band level to the upper limit of normal15). Ischemic stroke was defined as an acute episode of focal or global neurological dysfunction caused by brain, spinal cord, or retinal vascular injury as a result of an infarction16). Clinical follow-up was performed during routine clinical visits or via telephone interviews.
Statistical Analysis
All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS Statistics version 28 (IBM Corp, Armonk, NY, USA). Continuous variables are expressed as mean±standard deviation or median (interquartile range). Categorical variables are expressed as numbers and percentages. Continuous variables were compared using Student’s t-test or the Mann–Whitney U test, whereas categorical variables were compared using the chi-square or Fisher’s exact test. Time-to-event data were evaluated using the Kaplan–Meier method, and intergroup differences in the event rates were evaluated using the log-rank test. Cox proportional hazard regression analyses were performed to evaluate the associations between clinical events and variables. A multivariable Cox regression analysis was performed after adjusting for variables with p＜0.05 in the univariate analysis. Hazard ratios (HRs) are presented with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Statistical significance was set at p＜0.05.
Results
The baseline characteristics of the 691 enrolled patients are shown in Table 1. The median age was 70 (63–76) years. Of the 691 patients, 80.0% were men, 31.0% presented with acute coronary syndrome, 73.7% had dyslipidemia, and 85.4% received a statin at discharge. The median low density lipoprotein cholesterol level was 97 (78–122) mg/dL. Among 691 patients, 309 had a heterogeneous plaque. Patients with heterogeneous plaques were significantly older; more frequently had hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, and history of ischemic stroke, MI, and coronary artery bypass grafting; and had lower hemoglobin levels. In patients with heterogeneous plaques, low density lipoprotein cholesterol and triglyceride levels were significantly lower, and acute coronary syndrome was less frequently observed. Calcified or irregular/ulcerated plaque was more frequently observed in the heterogeneous group than in the homogeneous group.
Table 1.
Characteristics of the patients
|
All N= 691 |
Patients with heterogeneous plaque N= 309 |
Patients without heterogeneous plaque N= 382 |
P-valuea
|
| Age, years |
70 (63-76) |
72 (66-78) |
67 (60-74) |
＜0.001 |
| Body mass index, kg/m2
|
23.7 (21.5-26.3) |
23.4 (21.0-25.8) |
24.0 (21.7-26.6) |
0.02 |
| Men, n (%)
|
553 (80.0%) |
251 (81.2%) |
302 (79.1%) |
0.48 |
| Hypertension, n (%)
|
512 (74.1%) |
241 (78.0%) |
271 (70.9%) |
0.04 |
| Diabetes mellitus, n (%)
|
322 (46.6%) |
159 (51.5%) |
163 (42.7%) |
0.02 |
| Dyslipidemia, n (%)
|
509 (73.7%) |
215 (69.6%) |
294 (77.0%) |
0.03 |
| eGFR, mL/min/1.73 m2
|
64.6 (50.5-76.9) |
61.8 (45.9-74.4) |
66.6 (54.0-79.3) |
＜0.001 |
| eGFR＜60 mL/min/1.73 m2, n (%)
|
274 (39.7%) |
140 (45.3%) |
134 (35.1%) |
0.006 |
| Dialysis, n (%)
|
26 (3.8%) |
20 (6.5%) |
6 (1.6%) |
＜0.001 |
| Current Smoker, n (%)
|
148 (21.4%) |
67 (21.8%) |
81 (21.2%) |
0.86 |
| Previous ischemic stroke |
104 (15.1%) |
60 (19.4%) |
44 (11.5%) |
0.004 |
| Previous MI, n (%)
|
89 (12.9%) |
51 (16.5%) |
38 (9.9%) |
0.01 |
| Previous PCI, n (%)
|
137 (19.8%) |
69 (22.3%) |
68 (17.8%) |
0.14 |
| Previous CABG, n (%)
|
48 (6.9%) |
32 (10.4%) |
16 (4.2%) |
0.002 |
| ACS, n (%)
|
214 (31.0%) |
82 (26.5%) |
132 (34.6%) |
0.02 |
| AMI, n (%)
|
132 (19.1%) |
49 (15.9%) |
83 (21.7%) |
0.05 |
| UAP, n (%)
|
82 (11.9%) |
33 (10.7%) |
49 (12.8%) |
0.39 |
| SAP, n (%)
|
477 (69.0%) |
227 (73.5%) |
250 (65.4%) |
0.02 |
| Medication at discharge |
|
|
|
|
| Antiplatelet agent, n (%)
|
686 (99.3%) |
306 (99.0%) |
380 (99.5%) |
0.40 |
| ACE-i/ARB, n (%)
|
422 (61.1%) |
193 (62.5%) |
229 (59.9%) |
0.50 |
| Ca blocker, n (%)
|
276 (39.9%) |
129 (41.7%) |
147 (38.5%) |
0.38 |
| β blocker, n (%)
|
263 (38.1%) |
122 (39.5%) |
141 (36.9%) |
0.49 |
| Statin, n (%)
|
590 (85.4%) |
256 (82.8%) |
334 (87.4%) |
0.09 |
| Oral antidiabetic, n (%)
|
208 (30.1%) |
106 (34.3%) |
102 (26.7%) |
0.03 |
| Insulin, n (%)
|
73 (10.6%) |
30 (9.7%) |
43 (11.3%) |
0.51 |
| Total cholesterol, mg/dL |
172 (146-202) |
169 (142-195) |
176 (154-208) |
＜0.001 |
| HDL cholesterol, mg/dL |
45 (37-53) |
44 (36-53) |
45 (38-54) |
0.18 |
| LDL cholesterol, mg/dL |
97 (78-122) |
94 (76-114) |
100 (80-128) |
0.002 |
| Triglyceride, mg/dL |
120 (86-174) |
112 (82-164) |
127 (90-183) |
0.01 |
| HbA1c, % |
6.1 (5.8-6.8) |
6.2 (5.8-7.0) |
6.1 (5.8-6.7) |
0.08 |
| Hemoglobin, g/dL |
13.3 (11.8-14.7) |
12.9 (11.3-14.3) |
13.7 (12.3-15.0) |
＜0.001 |
| Ejection fraction, % |
63.6 (56.0-69.0) |
62.1 (54.0-68.3) |
64.0 (57.4-69.3) |
0.03 |
| Max CIMT, mm |
2.5 (1.8-3.1) |
2.9 (2.4-3.6) |
1.9 (1.4-2.7) |
＜0.001 |
| Calcified plaque, n (%)
|
471 (68.2%) |
288 (93.2%) |
174 (45.5%) |
＜0.001 |
| Irregular or ulcerated plaque, n (%)
|
238 (34.4%) |
178 (57.6%) |
58 (15.2%) |
＜0.001 |
a between the patients with and without heterogeneous carotid plaque
HDL; high density lipoprotein, LDL; low density lipoprotein, eGFR; estimated glomerular filtration rate, MI; myocardial infarction, PCI; percutaneous coronary intervention, CABG; coronary artery bypass grafting, ACS; acute coronary syndrome, AMI; acute myocardial infarction, UAP; unstable angina pectoris, SAP; stable angina pectoris, ACE-I; angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, ARB; angiotensin Ⅱ receptor blocker, CIMT; carotid intima-media thickness
During the median follow-up period of 1300 (541–2466) days, 63 patients developed MACE (36 in patients with heterogeneous plaque and 27 in patients without heterogeneous plaque). Patients with heterogeneous plaques had a significantly higher incidence of MACE (p=0.002) (Fig.1). The incidence of CV death was significantly higher, and that of ischemic stroke tended to be higher in patients with heterogeneous plaque, whereas that of MI did not differ significantly between the two groups. When the patients were divided into three groups, namely, patients without plaque (CIMT ＜1.5 mm), those with only homogeneous plaque, and those with heterogeneous plaque, those with heterogeneous plaque had the highest incidence of MACE (Fig.2). Patients with calcified plaques had a significantly higher incidence of MACE than those without calcified plaques (p=0.01). Patients with irregular/ulcerated plaques tended to have a higher incidence of MACE than those without irregular/ulcerated plaques, but the difference was not statistically significant (p=0.054) (Fig.3).
Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses of MACE are shown in Table 2. Heterogeneous plaques were significantly associated with MACE after adjusting for covariates (HR, 1.71; 95% CI, 1.01–2.90; p=0.046). Meanwhile, maximum CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm was not independently associated with MACE (HR, 1.25; 95% CI, 0.52–2.97; p=0.62) (Supplemental Table 1). Calcified or irregular/ulcerated plaques were not independently associated with MACE (HR, 1.35; 95% CI, 0.69–2.64; p=0.38 and HR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.57–1.69; p=0.95, respectively) (Supplemental Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2.
Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analysis for MACE
|
Univariate |
Multivariate |
| HR |
95%CI |
P-value
|
HR |
95%CI |
P-value
|
| Heterogeneous carotid plaque |
2.20 |
1.33-3.66 |
0.002 |
1.71 |
1.01-2.90 |
0.046 |
| Max CIMT |
1.41 |
1.14-1.76 |
0.002 |
|
|
|
| Age |
1.04 |
1.01-1.06 |
0.02 |
1.01 |
0.98-1.04 |
0.47 |
| Body mass index |
0.94 |
0.87-.1.01 |
0.10 |
|
|
|
| Men |
0.67 |
0.38-1.16 |
0.15 |
|
|
|
| Hypertension |
1.47 |
0.76-2.81 |
0.25 |
|
|
|
| Diabetes mellitus |
1.75 |
1.05-2.91 |
0.03 |
1.49 |
0.89-2.49 |
0.14 |
| Dyslipidemia |
0.60 |
0.35-1.01 |
0.054 |
|
|
|
| eGFR＜60 mL/min/1.73 m2
|
2.79 |
1.67-4.66 |
＜0.001 |
2.16 |
1.25-3.71 |
0.005 |
| Dialysis |
6.43 |
3.16-13.09 |
＜0.001 |
|
|
|
| Current Smoker |
0.62 |
0.31-1.25 |
0.18 |
|
|
|
| Hemoglobin |
0.86 |
0.75-0.98 |
0.02 |
0.98 |
0.85-1.12 |
0.74 |
| Ejection fraction |
0.98 |
0.96-1.00 |
0.12 |
|
|
|
| Previous ischemic stroke |
3.65 |
2.18-6.12 |
＜0.001 |
2.77 |
1.63-4.73 |
＜0.001 |
| Previous MI |
0.76 |
0.33-1.76 |
0.52 |
|
|
|
| Previous PCI |
0.80 |
0.42-1.53 |
0.50 |
|
|
|
| Previous CABG |
1.23 |
0.49-3.08 |
0.66 |
|
|
|
| ACS |
1.42 |
0.84-2.39 |
0.19 |
|
|
|
| Medication at discharge |
|
|
|
|
|
|
| Antiplatelet agent |
0.19 |
0.03-1.40 |
0.10 |
|
|
|
| ACE-i / ARB |
1.33 |
0.77-2.28 |
0.31 |
|
|
|
| Ca blocker |
0.92 |
0.56-1.53 |
0.75 |
|
|
|
| β blocker |
1.56 |
0.95-2.58 |
0.08 |
|
|
|
| Statin |
0.45 |
0.26-0.79 |
0.005 |
0.60 |
0.34-1.05 |
0.07 |
| Oral antidiabetic |
1.08 |
0.63-1.84 |
0.78 |
|
|
|
| Insulin |
1.83 |
0.98-3.44 |
0.06 |
|
|
|
MACE; major adverse cardiovascular event, CIMT; carotid intima-media thickness, eGFR; estimated glomerular filtration rate, MI; myocardial infarction, PCI; percutaneous coronary intervention, CABG; coronary artery bypass grafting, ACS; acute coronary syndrome, ACE-I; angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitor, ARB; angiotensin Ⅱ receptor blocker
Supplemental Table 1.
Multivariate Cox regression analysis for MACE (Model 2)
|
Multivariate |
| HR |
95%CI |
P-value
|
| Max CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm |
1.25 |
0.52-2.97 |
0.62 |
| Age |
1.02 |
0.99-1.05 |
0.31 |
| Diabetes mellitus |
1.47 |
0.87-2.47 |
0.15 |
| eGFR＜60 mL/min/1.73m2
|
2.20 |
1.28-3.79 |
0.004 |
| Hemoglobin |
0.97 |
0.85-1.11 |
0.66 |
| Previous ischemic stroke |
2.85 |
1.68-4.85 |
＜0.001 |
| Statin at discharge |
0.60 |
0.34-1.06 |
0.08 |
MACE; major adverse cardiovascular event, CIMT; carotid intima-media thickness, eGFR; estimated glomerular filtration rate
Supplemental Table 2.
Multivariate Cox regression analysis for MACE (Model 3)
|
Multivariate |
| HR |
95%CI |
P-value
|
| Calcified plaque |
1.35 |
0.69-2.64 |
0.38 |
| Age |
1.01 |
0.99-1.04 |
0.35 |
| Diabetes mellitus |
1.46 |
0.87-2.45 |
0.16 |
| eGFR＜60 mL/min/1.73m2
|
2.15 |
1.25-3.72 |
0.006 |
| Hemoglobin |
0.98 |
0.85-1.12 |
0.72 |
| Previous ischemic stroke |
2.83 |
1.66-4.81 |
＜0.001 |
| Statin at discharge |
0.61 |
0.35-1.06 |
0.08 |
MACE; major adverse cardiovascular event, eGFR; estimated glomerular filtration rate
Supplemental Table 3.
Multivariate Cox regression analysis for MACE (Model 4)
|
Multivariate |
| HR |
95%CI |
P-value
|
| Irregular / ulcerated plaque |
0.98 |
0.57-1.69 |
0.95 |
| Age |
1.02 |
0.99-1.05 |
0.27 |
| Diabetes mellitus |
1.48 |
0.88-2.49 |
0.14 |
| eGFR＜60 mL/min/1.73m2
|
2.24 |
1.30-3.84 |
0.004 |
| Hemoglobin |
0.97 |
0.84-1.11 |
0.63 |
| Previous ischemic stroke |
2.89 |
1.69-4.94 |
＜0.001 |
| Statin at discharge |
0.60 |
0.34-1.05 |
0.08 |
MACE; major adverse cardiovascular event, eGFR; estimated glomerular filtration rate
Discussion
This study showed a correlation between carotid artery ultrasound findings and clinical outcomes in patients who underwent PCI. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study showing the clinical significance of a visually evaluated heterogeneous carotid plaque in patients with PCI. Patients with heterogeneous plaques (maximum CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm and visually evaluated heterogeneous texture) had a higher incidence of MACE (CV death, MI, and ischemic stroke). The presence of heterogeneous plaques independently predicted MACE after adjustments for covariates, whereas maximum CIMT only did not. Patients with calcified or irregular/ulcerated plaques were significantly or tended to be at higher risk of MACE; however, calcified or irregular/ulcerated plaques were not independent predictors of MACE.
Carotid atherosclerosis reflects systemic atherosclerosis, including that of the coronary arteries17). Assessing carotid atherosclerosis is useful for predicting future CV disease risk5, 6). CIMT, carotid plaque, and plaque characteristics are important indicators of carotid atherosclerosis. For measuring CIMT, it is recommended to obtain images of distal 1 cm of the far wall of each CCA (not at the maximally thick point in any segment of the carotid artery)6). Many studies have shown a relationship between CIMT and future CV events6). In patients without known CV disease, CIMT was significantly associated with MI, stroke, and CV death18-21). However, a meta-analysis showed no additional value of CIMT measurement to the Framingham Risk Score, a widely used CV risk prediction tool, for predicting CV events22). Consequently, the American Heart Association/American College of Cardiology and European Society of Cardiology guidelines do not recommend routine CIMT measurements in risk assessments23, 24). In contrast, carotid plaque, defined as atherosclerotic focal thickening protruding into the lumen or atherosclerotic diffuse vessel wall thickening with a CIMT ≥ 1.5 mm in any segment of the carotid artery, reflects atherosclerosis more strongly than CIMT and is useful for risk assessments5). Measuring maximal plaque height is recommended because several studies have demonstrated an association with clinical outcomes8-10). A meta-analysis of population-based studies reported that carotid plaque, compared with CIMT, was a stronger predictor of a future MI25). Moreover, in patients with CAD, carotid plaque was a better predictor of CV events than CIMT26). Considering this evidence, we measured the maximum CIMT at the maximally thick point in the bilateral CCA, carotid bulbus, and ICA (not distal 1 cm of the CCA).
Heterogeneous plaques are reportedly correlated with intraplaque hemorrhage, ulceration, and lipid core, indicating carotid plaque vulnerability12, 13). A recent study showed that histologically evaluated vulnerable carotid plaques were associated with future CV events27). Echolucent (hypoechoic) plaques are also considered to indicate carotid plaque vulnerability. Previous studies reported that echolucent plaques, which were quantitatively evaluated by grayscale median or integrated backscatter, were associated with future CV events28-31). The quantitative evaluation of carotid plaques is certainly effective, but it takes time and might be difficult to adapt to clinical practice. Furthermore, clear cut-off values have not yet been determined5). In the current study, we visually evaluated plaque heterogeneity as a simple assessment of plaque characteristics. Shimoda et al. reported that visually evaluated heterogeneous carotid plaques are associated with the risk of CV diseases in subjects without known CV disease11). These results suggest the utility of visual assessment of carotid plaque heterogeneity. In the present study, the presence of heterogeneous plaque had a greater impact on the prediction of MACE than maximum CIMT alone. In addition, patients with heterogeneous plaques had a higher incidence of MACE than those with homogeneous plaques. It is important to assess carotid plaque volume and quality, as a previous study also reported that the combination of CIMT and plaque characteristics was effective for outcome prediction30).
Several studies have investigated the correlation between carotid ultrasound findings and CV events in patients with CAD29-33). Echolucent carotid plaques evaluated by integrated backscatter are reportedly associated with future CV events in patients with CAD29-31). However, the relationship between carotid ultrasound findings and future risks in patients undergoing PCI has not been completely elucidated. Although the association between CIMT and in-stent restenosis has been reported34, 35), few studies have investigated the relationship between carotid ultrasound findings and hard clinical outcomes36-38). This study targeted patients who underwent PCI and showed the association between maximum CIMT, visually assessed plaque characteristics, and hard MACE (CV death, MI, and stroke) with a median follow-up period of 3.5 years. Our results suggest that patients with PCI with heterogeneous plaques might benefit from more aggressive managements such as strict optimal medication therapy.
Calcified or irregular/ulcerated plaques were significantly or tended to be related to MACE, but they were not independent predictors in our study. Nonin et al. reported that carotid plaque calcification length is associated with a composite of cardiac death and acute MI, whereas plaque irregularity is associated with a composite of cardiac death, acute MI, and coronary revascularization in patients who underwent coronary stent implantation36). This inconsistency may be partially because of differences in the methods used to evaluate plaque characteristics. They quantitatively measured the calcification length and defined an irregular surface as surface irregularity ＞0.4 mm; meanwhile, we only evaluated them visually. Thus, a quantitative evaluation might be better for assessing the calcification or surface morphology of carotid plaques.
In the current study, the prevalence of hypertension and diabetes mellitus was higher in the heterogeneous group, but that of dyslipidemia was higher in the homogenous group. A previous study reported that lipid-lowering therapy brought stabilization of carotid plaque39). Therefore, characteristics of carotid plaque might have been already affected at the time of PCI among patients with dyslipidemia.
This study had several limitations. First, this was a single-center retrospective study with a limited number of patients. Second, ultrasound data regarding hypoechoic plaques, mobile plaques, plaque volume, and the number of plaques were not available. Third, the endpoint of ischemic stroke might include cardiogenic cerebral embolization, which might be less related to carotid plaque than other atherosclerotic infarctions. However, in clinical practice, it is often difficult to completely distinguish cardiogenic embolization from atherosclerotic infarction, including artery-to-artery embolization. Fourth, this study included patients who underwent PCI during an extended period; therefore, characteristics such as PCI and medical therapy might have varied. The utility of carotid ultrasound for risk estimation in patients who receive contemporary PCI and medication therapy should be investigated in the future.
Conclusion
In patients with CAD undergoing PCI, the presence of heterogeneous carotid plaque was independently associated with the risk of MACE, including CV death, MI, and ischemic stroke. Such patients may require more aggressive medical therapy and careful follow-up.
Acknowledgements:
This work was supported by a grant from Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (KAKENHI) (No.19K17591) of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) and Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPA).
Conflicts of interest:
Hideki Ishii received lecture fees from Astellas Pharma Inc, AstraZeneca, Daiichi Sankyo Inc, MSD. Toyoaki Murohara received lecture fees from Bayer Pharmaceutical Co LTD, Daiichi Sankyo Co Ltd, Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma Co Ltd, Kowa Co Ltd, MSD, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corp, Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim Co Ltd, Novartis Pharma Kabushiki Kaisha, Pfizer Japan Inc, Sanofi-aventis, Takeda Pharmaceutical Co Ltd. Toyoaki Murohara received unrestricted research grants from Daiichi Sankyo Co Ltd, Dainippon Sumitomo Pharma Co Ltd, Kowa Co Ltd, MSD, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma Corp, Nippon Boehringer Ingelheim Co Ltd, Novartis Pharma Kabushiki Kaisha, Pfizer Japan Inc, Sanofi-aventis, Takeda Pharmaceutical Co Ltd, Astellas Pharma Inc, Otsuka Pharmaceutical Co Ltd, Teijin Pharma Ltd. All other authors have reported that they have no relationships relevant to the contents of this paper to disclose.
Footnote
All authors take responsibility for all aspects of the reliability and freedom from bias of the data presented and their discussed interpretation.
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