The Transformation of Traditional Islamic Learning in Malaysia

Abstract

  In Malaysia, traditional Islamic institutions called “pondok” have been replaced by modern-type Islamic schools with the gradual acceptance of bureaucratic characteristics. This transformation or modernization is usually described as “development” in a positive sense; however, the so-called indicators of modern schools are patterned from the European model of development. While it is true that Islamic education should have a base that fits its own framework, to what extent has the modernization of Islamic education affected the overall framework of Islamic education? To demonstrate this aspect of transformation vis-à-vis Islamic education, this paper examines how the nature of traditional Islamic education has changed over the course of modernization or bureaucratization.

  The first part describes the general image of pondok as an “ideal arrangement” for Islamic learning immediately prior to modernization. Here we can find the elements of charismatic control and non-bureaucratic characteristics. Pondok are places where learners form a small community to pursue their studies and live under the guidance of a charismatic “Tok Guru”, or great teacher. Pondok became popular in 19^th century Malaya. Tok gurus who had learned deep knowledge in Islamic sciences (usually from Mecca) would find a pondok upon the request of a local community. The learners could be of any age or nationalities, and they could stay as long as they wished. There was no curriculum, examination or class promotion system. Learners of all ages and levels could sit in the same “halaqah” or study circle to listen to Tok guru’s lectures. They read religious books called “kitab” in Jawi, Arabic written Malay, or in Arabic, page by page from cover to cover. The tok guru, assistant teachers, learners and their families stayed in a community under strict rules set by tok guru. The learning in pondok was thought to be meaningful when it caused the learners’ belief and religious practice to strengthen.

  The second part deals with the general modern history of Islamic learning. Pondok is said to have had existed since the 17^th century, but became popular only between the late 19^th century and early 20^th century. On the other hand, it was also in the early 20^th century that Islamic reformism emerged in Egypt, stimulating some students from Malaya to establish modern-type institutions for Islamic education called “madrasah”. In the second and third decade of the 20^th century, the Malay Muslims seemed to favour the madrasahs, whose system was similar to British modern schools, over pondoks. The establishment of madrasah, where the teaching is planned and shared, was the first moment for Islamic learning in Malaysia to attain bureaucratic characteristics. This type of school started to be called “Sekolah Agama Rakyat” (SAR), meaning “people’s religious school”. The SAR started as an independent institution managed by the community. Through time, the religious administration and various national education initiatives of the federal government have expanded calls for further changes. The SAR accepted financial support from states and the federal government, and accordingly they adapted curriculums, examinations and restrictions on age and nationality. Because of financial dependency, SARs had to abide by expectations set by state and federal governments, gradually increasing their bureaucratic character. Almost half of SARs became fully funded by the government and integrated into the national bureaucracy. (View PDF for the rest of the abstract.)